Lab Project: Build a Human Limb

For this lab project we needed to construct a human limb and show the different processes of and the part of cell function. I constructed the lower arm for this project which includes the Ulna, Radius, wrist and elbow joints. I also included a representation of the muscles in the lower arm. We also needed to include action potential and the different elements that go into it.

Here is a picture of the items that I used for this project:

2 large square tubing represents the Ulna and Radius

2 Joints represent the Trochlea and Captilium

2 Hinges represent the Wrist and Elbow Joints

CAT 5 cable represents the Sarcolemma and T Tubles

CAT 5 cable also represents the Myosin Strands

Zip Ties: (white) Acton Strands (black) Calcium

Washer represents the Cell Body

Springs represent the muscles in the arm (Carpal muscle groups)

Electical Wire represents the Axon, Myeline Sheath, and Axon Terminal

Here is a diagram of a Neuron

Here is a diagram of the propagation of an Action potential

The top half of this photo is when the myosin is sliding with the actin. Included in this photo is the cross-bridge for when the myosin obtains the Ca+. The bottoms half is a representation of the Sarcolemma and the T Tubule Membrane.

When these processes happen they all contribute to the action of muscles. Muscles need to have these processes in order to make contraction and movement complete. Action potential is needed because regulates the potassium and sodium ions, which help with movement.

Online Lab: Muscle Function

This lab is representing how muscle function works when there are different circumstances happening. In the first part we tested the effects of cold weather and muscles. In the second part we were testing to see how fatigue effects the muscles.

1. The three changes that I noticed while doing this experiment were that muscles move slower when cold. They also work slower when they are fatigued. When flexing your muscles, their shape changes.

2. While testing with the cold water experiment (picture to the left is my hand in cold water for 1 minute) the muscles move a lot slower. Before I put my hand in the cold water, I could pump the blood pressure bulb 35 times. When I removed my hand from the water I could only pump it 28 times.

3. While testing for fatigue, the muscles also performed slower. Here are my results for that test:

1. 43

2. 41

3. 37

4. 34

5. 29

6. 25

7. 23

8. 24

9. 20

When testing the cold temperature experiment, the reason that the pumps went down after removing my hand from the water is that cold weather has an effect on muscles. If you think about it like this, when your standing outside in the cold how does your body respond? Usually your heart rate is much slower; therefore, when your cold, the muscles in the body will move slower because of the temperature difference. All processes in the body become slower is very cold climate.

When the body gets fatigued it takes a lot more energy to produce a process. While doing the experiment we were asked not to take breaks so our muscles became fatigued. When you work out you burn more energy (ATP) than you can produce. If you can't produce the energy to support the activity, then you become fatigued.

Online Lab: Leech Neurons

1. An electrode is the machine that measures the amount of activity in neurons. The device "delivers electric shock" to a patient or specimen to stimulate cells.

2. The leech is used for medical purposes because many people don't think anything when a leech is killed. Leeches also have a high number of neurons and cells for how small of a creature they are.

3. A motor neuron is when the impulses are going away from the central nervous system. A sensory neuron is when the impulses are going to the central nervous system.

4. I believe that the leech does feel pain. In our text book, the definition for pain receptor is "Sensory receptor that is sensitive to chemicals released by damaged tissues or excess stimuli of heat or pressure" Leeches do have sensory receptors and pain in inflicted on the leech, so it does feel pain.

5. I really like this lab because you can use the dye and the UV light to see the neurons more clearly. I also like that you could stimulate the neurons with different objects to see what stimulates them even more.

6. I really liked this lab and I think it is a great representation of what neurons do when they are stimulated. The only thing I didn't like about this lab, was that you couldn't adjust the screen size, which made it hard to see. I wish the images would have been a bit bigger.

Compendium Six

I. Skeletal System

• A. Overview of Skeletal System
• B. Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair
• C. Bones of the Axial Skeleton
• D. Bones of Appendicular Skeleton

I. Muscular System

• A. Overview of Muscular System
• B. Skeletal Muscle Fiber and Contraction
• C. Whole Muscle Contraction
• D. Muscle Disorders
• E. Homeostasis
  
  

I. Skeletal System

A. Overview of Skeletal System

--Functions of the Skeletal System--

• Support the body
  
• Protects soft body parts
  
• Produces blood cells
  
• Stores minerals and fats
  
• Permits flexible body movement

---Anatomy of a long bone---

• Shaft is diaphysis
  
• End of bond in epiphysis-large spongy bone with red bone marrow. Surrounded with articular cartilage
  
• Bone

1. Compact

2. Spongy

3. Red Bone Marrow

• Cartilage
  

1. More flexible but not as strong as bone

2. No nerves; no blood vessels

3. Hyaline Cartilage

4. Fibrocartilage

5. Elastic Cartilage

• Fibrous Connective Tissue
  

1. Make up ligaments

B. Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair

• Osteoblasts- bone forming cells
• Osteocytes- maintain structure of bone
• Osteoclasts- bone absorbing cells
• Bone Development

1. Ossification- formation of bones

2. Intermembrous Ossification

• Develope between sheets of fibrous tissue
• Connective tissue cells become osteoblasts
• Trabeculae of spongy bone and spongy bone remains inside

• Endochodral Ossification

1. Bone replaces cartilage

2. The cartilage model

3. The bone collar

4. The primary ossification center

5. The medullary cavity and secondary ossification site

6. The epipseal plate

7. The final size of the bone (18 females)(20 males)

• Bone Remodeling
  

1. 18% of bone is modeled in a year

2. Allows the body to regulate calcium

3. PTH- hormone

4. Calcitonin- opposite hormone of PTH

• Bone Repair

1. Hemotoma

2. Fibrocartilage

3. Bony Callus

4. Remodeling

C. Bone of the Axial Skeleton

• Skull


• The Bones of the Skull

The cranium protects the brain

Frontal- Forehead

Parietal- Sides

Occipital- base of the skull

Temporal- ears

Sphenoid- floor of the cranium

Ethmoid- forms orbits and nasal structure

• Facial Bones

Mandible- lower jaw

Maxillae- upper jaw

Zygomatic- cheek bone

Nasal Bones- bridge of nose

• Hyoid Bone

Attached to temporal bones by muscle ligaments and to the larynx by membrane

Associated with swallowing

• Vertebral Column

33 vertebra

4 curvatures

spinal cord passes through it

mid line of the back

named according to location

Cervical vertebra- neck

Thoracic- ribs

Lumbar- lower back

Sacral- sacrum

• Rib Cage
  
  

Thoracic cage

12 pairs of bones

7 pairs (upper) "true"ribs

3 pairs (lower) "false" ribs

2 pairs (bottom) "floating" ribs

Sternum protects the heart and lungs

Manubrium, Body, and Xiphoid

D. Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

• Pectoral Girdle and Upper limb

Clavical- top of thorax

Scapula- visible bone in the back

Glenoid cavity

Rotator Cuff

Humerus- upper bone in arm

Radium- outer part of lower arm

Ulna- inside part of lower arm

Carpal bones (metacarpals and phalanges)

• Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
  

Pelvis- pelvic girdle, sacrum, coccyx

Coxal- ilium, ischium, pubis

Acetabulium- hip socket

Femur- upper bone in leg

Tibia- inner lower leg bone

Fibia- outer lower leg bone

Patella- knee cap

Tarsal bone (metacarpal and phalanges)

II. Muscular System

A. Overview of the Muscular System

• Types of Muscles

Smooth Muscles- located in walls of hallow internal organs

Cardiac Muscles- Forms heart wall

Skeletal Muscles

• Functions of Skeletal Muscles
  
  

Support the body

Makes bones move

Maintain body temp

Assist with movement in cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels

Helps protect internal organs and stabilize joints

• Skeletal Muscles of the Body
  
  
  

When muscle contracts it pulls tendons and creates movement

Usually functions in groups

Muscles contract, they shorten

Can only pull, not push

• Names and actions of Skeletal Muscles
  

Named after several factors

Size

Shape

Location

Direction of muscle fibers

Attachment

Number of attachments

Action

B. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Contration

• Muscle fibers and how they slide

Sarcolemma- plasma membrane

Carcoplasm- cytoplasma

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum- ER

Myofibrals- run the length of the muscle

Thick Filaments

Thin Filaments

Sliding Filaments

Control muscularfiber contraction uses the motor neurons

C. Whole Muscle Contraction

• Muscles have motor units (all stimulated at same time)
  
• Energy from muscle contraction

2 energy sources are stored in muscle

2 energy sources are acquired from blood

Glucose and fatty acids

Store limited amounts of ATP

CP pathway

Fermentation

Cellular respiration

• Fast Twitch and Slow Twitch

Fast Twitch (Anaerobic, explosion of energy)

Slow Twitch (Long distance running, more mitochondria)

D. Muscle Disorders

• Spasms
• Cramps
• Strain
• Sprain

E. Homeostasis

• Both systems produce movement
• Both systems protect body parts
• Bones store and release calcium
• Blood cells produce in bone
• Muscle maintains body temp

Compendium Five

I. Nervous System

• A. Overview of the Nervous System
• B. The Central Nervous System
• C. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
• D. The Peripheral Nervous System
• E. Drug Abuse
  

II. Senses

• A. Sensory Receptors and Sensations
• B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• C. Senses of Taste and Smell
• D. Sense of Vision
• E. Sense of Hearing
• F. Sense of Equilibrium
  

I. The Nervous System

A. Overview of the Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS) (Brain and Spinal Cord)

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) (Nerves)

• 3 Functions

1. Sensory receptors generate nerve impulses that travel through CNS and PNS

2. CNS performs integration

3. CNS generates motor output

• Nervous Tissue

Neurons (cell transmit nerve impulses)

Neuraoglia (support and nourish)

• Neuron Structure

---3 types of neurons---

1. Sensory Neurons

2. Sensory Receptors

3. Interneurons

---Vary in appearances: 3 common parts---

1. Cell Body (nucleus)

2. Dendrites (receive signals)

3. Axon (conducts nerve impulses)

• Myelin Sheath

Cover and protect axons

Node of Ranvier- breaks in axons

Only present on long axons

• Nerve Impulse

Resting Potential (not conducting impulse, sodium and potassium pump)

Action Potential (Change in polarity, Sodium gates (depolarization), Potassium Gates (re polarization)

• Propagation of an Action Potential

Saltatory Conduction

MS and Leukodystrophies

Lorenzo's oil

• Synapse
  

Events that occur:

1. Nerve impulse reach axon terminal

2. Calcium enters terminal

3. Neurotransmitter released and diffuse

There are 100 known Neurotransmitter molecules known

Synaptic Integration: summing up of signals

B. The Central Nervous System

• The Spinal Cord

---Structure of Spinal Cord---

Central Canal- cerebrospinal fluid

Gray Matter- H Shaped

White Matter- Inside the gray matter

---Functions---

Communication from the brain to the nerves

Reflex actions

• The Brain
  

4 Ventricles

---Cerebrum---

telencephalon

largest portion of the brain

2 halves

longitudinal fissure separates the hemispheres

Frontal Lobe- Forehead

Parietal Lobe- Dorsal to the frontal

Occipital Lobe- Dorsal to parietal

Temporal Lobe- Temple and ear

Cerebral Cortex is the out layer of the brain

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Brainlobes.svg)

---Diencephalon---

hypothalamus and the thalamus

---Cerebellum---

under the occipital region

2 portions- white matter

receives sensory input (eyes, ears, joints, muscles)

motor output from cerebral cortex

sends motor impulses to skeletal muscles

---Brain Stem---

Midbrain- Relay station

the Pons- Bundles of axons

Medulla Oblongata

C. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions

• The Limbic System

Primitive emotions and higher mental functions

Amygdala- emotion and sense of fear

Hippocampus- learning and memory

Higher Mental Functions

---Memory---

Short term memory

Long term memory

Sematic Memory (numbers and words)

Episodic Memory (persons, events,)

Skill Memory

---Language and Speech---

Depends mostly on Sematic Memory

D. The Peripheral Nervous System

nerves are composed of axons

12 pairs of cranial nerves (sensory and motor)

---Somatic System---

Skin, skeletal muscles, tendons

Reflexes (automatic response to stimulus)

---Autonomic System---

Regulates activity of cardiac and smooth muscles

---Both Systems---

1. Function automatically and involuntary

2. Innervate all internal organs

3. 2 neurons and 1 ganglia

Produce sympathetic division and Parasympathetic Division

E. Drug Abuse

• Alcohol (liver and brain; depressant; memory loss)
  Nicotine (stimulant; increase heart rate and blood pressure)
• Cocaine (stimulant; cardiac and respiratory arrest)
• Methamphetamine (stimulant; paranoia, hallucinations)
• Heroin (depressant; injected, snorted or inhaled)

II. Senses

A. Sensory Receptors and Sensations

• Dendrites
• Extereceptors (outside of body)
• Intereceptors (inside the body)
• Types of sensory receptors

Chemoreceptors--Chemicals

Pain Receptors

Photoreceptors--Light Energy

Mechanoreceptors--Mechanical

Thermoreceptors--Changes in Temperature

• Sensations occurs when sensory receptors initiate the nerve impulses and then they integrate

B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors

• Proprioceptors (equilibrium, posture, and muscle tone)


• Cutaneous Receptors (dermis; touch, pressure, pain; Meissner Corpuscles; Merkel Disks, and root of hair)
• Pain Receptors (nociceptors)
  

C. Senses of Smell and Taste

• Sense of taste



• 3000 Taste buds

4 Primary tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salty)

The Brain takes the average of tastes to get an average

• Sense of smell

80-90 % of taste is a result of smell

Olfactory Cells

D. Sense of Vision

• Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye

2.5 cm in diameter

sclera-white part of eye

cornea- "windows the eye"

choroid- absorbs stray light rays

iris- regulates the size of pupil

pupil- center of the iris which light enters

ciliary body- controls the shape of lens for near or far vision

lens-refracts and focus light rays

retina-contains rods (dark) and cones (bright light)

E. Sense of Hearing

• Anatomy and Physiology of the ear

Outer ear (pinna and auditory canal)

Middle Ear (tympanic membrane; oval and round window; malleus, incus, and stapes; auditory tube)

Outer Ear (semicircular canals, vestibule, cochlea)

Waves enter the auditory canal, the malleus moves back and forth, passed to the incus, when stapes strikes the membrane the waves move

E. Sense of Equilibrium

• Rotational Equilibrium
  



• Gravitational Equilibrium

Unit II Evaluation

Self and Unit Evaluation

1. I’m really proud of the second compendium that I wrote. I think I’m finally starting to get them down! I’m also proud of both labs that I did. I spent a good amount of time on them and I think they came out well. I’m also proud of my lab write up. I had fun with this one, although I think my husband differs ☺

2. I think I could have used some help with the first compendium that I wrote but I think after the second one I wrote I’m a little more confident in it. I think my ethical essay could have used some improvement. I liked the topic but I just couldn’t get the right words out!

3. I think I should get a low A. I really liked all these topics and I think I did a better job this time around.

4. I think I could spend a little more time on some of the projects. I don’t think I spent as much time this time around



1. I really felt engaged when I was doing to food exercise. It really put into perspective what I ate and how it affected my daily intakes.

2. I think I felt distanced from this unit when it came down to the ethical issue.

3. The directions for the lab write up were very clear. They also helped me while I was doing to lab write up and the lab itself.

4. I don’t think anything really confused me this time!

5. Like I stated in question 1, I was really surprised with the food lab. I think it’s crazy that people eat all the time and don’t realize what they are consuming. I know I could benefit using that more often!

Unit II Lab Project

During this lab, I used the Wii Fit to help calculate blood pressure, respiratory rate, and pulse. When a person works out, their body needs to produce enough oxygen to replenish the body. When we test blood pressure you measure the systolic rate (“defined as the peak pressure in the arteries”). (www.wikipedia.com) We also test the diastolic rate “arterial pressure is the lowest pressure (at the resting phase of the cardiac cycle”. (www.wikipedia.com) We also tested the pulse rate, the “throbbing of their arteries as an effect of the heart beat”. (www.wikipedia.com) Finding the respiratory rate, you just calculate the number of respiration's in 30 seconds and times it by 2.

My hypothesis for this experiment is that when a person works out, I believe their blood pressure, respiration's, and pulse are going to go up. In the table below, I show what my hypothesis is for each activity.

In this chart I'm showing what my hypothesis for each activity will be. As you can see, I predict that as the activities intensify, the blood pressure, pulse rate and respiration rate will go up

This is a picture of the watch that we used for the respiration rates and the electronic blood pressure monitor. All measurements were taken immediately after each activity. There was no resting period between activity and time of measurement.

This is a picture of the Wii Fit game. If you aren't familiar with Wii fit, it's an interactive video game that is intended for physical fitness and weight loss.

This is a picture of my husband watching tv (The Deadliest Catch on the Discovery Channel) to get the baseline measurements. Thankfully, my wonderful husband did all the activities for me, as I would have probably died! ☺

Here is a picture of my husband doing Wii Fit Ski Jump. This exercise is designed to help improve balance and requires very little energy and movement.

My husband is doing Wii Fit Push-Ups (10 push ups at a time.) This exercise is designed for upper body strength and requires quite a bit of exercise and movement. It definitely gets your blood moving.

This is the Wii Fit Short Run. Basically its 3 minutes of running or jogging. Running is the best way to get your blood pumping and requires a ton of exercise and energy.

In all of these bar graphs, I know it is hard to read and I'm sorry! But the Purple bar is the Baseline rate, the red bar is the Wii Fit Ski, the yellow bar is the Wii Fit Push-ups, and the aqua color bar is the Wii Fit Short Run...I tried to make them bigger but it didn't work.

My hypothesis was correct for the most part. From the baseline measurement the averages were pulse was 67.6, respiration was 16.4 and blood pressure was 107.4/63.6. As we went on with the other activities all the variables increased, but very slightly, they didn't increase that much, or at least as much as I thought. In the Wii Fit Short run the averages were pulse 86, Respiration 22, and blood pressure 141.6/64.6. I thought that during this whole process that the averages would have been more defined and not close together.

The problems that came up with our lab is that for the short run, it doesn’t pace you at all. It just give you 3 minutes to run, but no pace meter. Without the pace meter we couldn’t tell if my husband was running at the same speed or if he was slower or faster than the previous run. I also think it would be more accurate if you were doing the blood pressure testing while exercising. I would have my husband sit down to take the blood pressure, and you could tell he was calming down after a minute or so of sitting. I know it would be pretty hard to do that, but I think it would be a little more accurate.

When people exercise their blood pressure, pulse rate, and respiratory rate increase slightly. Depending on how much work your activity is, the differences will vary. It makes complete sense that the more you work out the more your heart has to pump in order to get more oxygen to the body. The more your heart pumps, the faster you pulse rate will be. When you work out, the blood enters your lungs to get more oxygen, in which your respiratory rate will go up. The blood pressure will go up because your heart is working very hard to produce new blood to get circulated.