Lab 1: Microscope Lab

(This image is a cheek cell at 4x)

When working in biology, especially microbiology, the microscope in an everyday tool. This lab shows us how to use a microscope and how to perfect our skills so we can achieve the goals that we need. We use a microscope to amplify or magnify microscopic organisms to see what they consist of and what their functions are.

There are different parts of a microscope:

• Stage: The stage is the rectangular, flat piece that the slide is placed on. There are clips that are attached to the stage to secure the slide. There are two knobs that are associated with the stage. They move the stage up and down and left to right.



• Focus knobs: There are two focus knobs. The bigger knob, or coarse knob, moves the stage quickly. The smaller knob, fine knob, moves the stage more slowly and is more for smaller adjustments.

• Iris: Is what helps with the transparency of the specimen. It is located under the stage.

• Oculars: These are what we look through. You can move them to adjust to your eyes. If you don't adjust them correctly, you will see double so make sure you only see one image.

• Objectives: These are what magnifies the images. On the simulator we used there were 4 objectives (4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x). To switch to the different objectives you just rotate them to the objective you want to use. Make sure when you are adjusting them, you have enough room between the lens and the stage! Otherwise, you will scratch the lens and the stage!
  

When you put a specimen on the stage you want to make sure it is centered and over the hole on the stage. The light needs to be able to shine through the specimen so you can get a clear image. Set the objective to the right magnification that you want. Use the focus knobs to adjust the specimen to the right image that you want. If you want to adjust it quickly, use the coarse knob. If you want to make smaller adjustments, use the fine knob. The xy controls are used to move the specimen side to side, or left to right.

Working with a microscope takes a lot of work and practice. I found that the more I used it, I became more familiar with it. I would use different objectives to see what images I would see and how they would differ from each other. Just remember, the more you utilize it, the better you will get with it. Practice makes perfect!

Some historical facts:

Zacharias Janssen was the first to develop a microscope in 1595. Many people believe that his father, Hans, is the one who actually developed the first microscope

In 1660, Robert Hooke took the microscope and modified it. He was a very mathematical person and used his knowledge to improve the microscope.

"Anton van Leevwerhoek was the first person to ever describe bacteria (from teeth scrapings), protozoans (from pond water) and helped prove the theory of blood circulation"

(this cheek cell at 10x)

(This cheek cell at 40x)

(cheek cell at 100x)

Compendium Two: Genetics

For this section, we covered 4 chapters of the book; Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance, DNA Biology and Technology, Cancer, and Genetic Inheritance. We went from the cell cycle to how abnormalities in the cell cycle can cause certain diseases. As a nursing major, I am really into how diseases are caused and what we can do to try and stop them from occurring.

Chapter 18:

--Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs...22 pairs are autosomes, 1 pair are sex chromosomes

Cell Cycle has two phases..

1. Interphase (90% of cell cycle---about 20 hours)

• G1- doubles in organelles
• S- DNA replication, duplication of chromosomes
• G2- Growth
  

2. Cell division

• M- Mitosis

Mitosis is when the parent cell (original) produces daughter cell (duplication)

The process of Mitosis

• Prophase (centrosome duplicates and separates)
  


• Metaphase (chromosomes are at the center)
  


• Anaphase (Separate and move to opposite ends)
  


• Telephase (at opposite ends)
  ( http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k3ch8mitosisnotes.html)
  

Meiosis is when the daughter cells divide...so you'll have 4 daughter cells total after the division

• Meiosis I- Line up side by side, paired chromosomes at equator,
  


• Meiosis II- Zygote (1st new individual)
  

The stages of Meiosis Prophase I

• Metaphase I

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

• Meiosis requires 2 nuclear divisions, Mitosis only requires 1
  


• 4 daughter cells for meiosis, mitosis only 2
  

Spermatogenisis and Oogenisis are the production of sex cells (sperm and egg)

Chapter 21:

The structure of DNA is it "resembles a ladder" (Sylvia Mader, Human Biology 10th Edition). The middle part of the "ladder" is contained of 4 different materials. (A pairs with T: G pairs with C)

When the replication of DNA occurs, only one strand is original. It will duplicate itself to get the other strand.

(http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookDNAMOLGEN.html)

The structure of RNA differs from DNA because it only has one strand instead of the double helix. Instead of A, T, G, and C...RNA is constructed of A, U, C, and G.

• rRNA joins with proteins and is produced in nucleus
  


• mRNA is also produced in nucleus and is Messenger RNA
  


• tRNA must have at least 20 present to keep functioning

Transcription is the process of

• Forming mRNA
  


• Processing mRNA
  


• Translation

Chapter 19

According to the Cancer webpage (http://www.cancer.org/) there was an estimated 1,444,920 cases of new cancer in the United States alone. Cancer occurs when a cell does not have the capability of dying(apoptosis). It will just keep regenerating.

Cancers have abnormal nuclei they are larger than others and have a different number of chromosomes.

When cancer cells form they just keep growing until they produce a mass, called a tumor. Cancer cells "pile on top of each other" (Sylvia Mader, Human Biology 10th Edition). Benign tumors are usually contained and are tight together. Cancer usually grows all over the place with no real shape.

Three different stages

• Initiation


• Promotion


• Progression

Cancer can often be a genetic disease. p53 is a protein that stops the cell cycle. A lot of cancers are lacking the p53 protein.

There are different types of cancer

• Prognosis (tumor has spread to tissues and other parts of body)
  


• Carcinomas (Skin, breast, liver, pancreas, intestines, lung, prostate, thyroid)
  


• Sarcomas (bone, fibrous)
  


• Leukemias (blood)
  


• Lymphomas (lymphatic system)

Cancers, aside from genetics, can also be caused by the environment. Radiation, organic chemicals, and diet can have an effect on cancer.

You have a better chance of going into remission if you follow these 7 steps

1. Change in bowel or bladder


2. A sore that doesn't heal


3. Unusual bleeding


4. Thickening or lump


5. Indigestion or difficulty swallowing


6. Obvious change in move/wart


7. Nagging cough or hoarseness

(Page 411 from our Text book, Sylvia Mader Human Biology 10th edition)

(http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/cancer/Slide18)

There are many different ways to handle cancer and hopefully go into remission

• Surgery


• Radiation


• Chemotherapy


• Bone Marrow transplant

Newer technology

• Immunotherapy


• p53 gene therapy

Chapter 20:

Genotype are the genes of the individual. Dominant genes are represented with 2 upper case letters(AA), recessive genes are represented with 2 lower case letters(aa), and heterogenius is represented with 1 upper case and 1 lower case(Aa) (although it takes the characteristics of Dominant genes)

The product that we are testing (ex: blond hair) is called the phenotype

When trying to figure out what the percentage of a phenotype you can use the Punnett Square. Here is an example

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Punnett_square_%28PSF%29.png)

When forming a family pedigree you can set it up like this:

(http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/pedigree/mapgene.cfm)

When the environment changes some of the outcomes of genetics is it called Polygenic inheritance. (skin color can be changed by the sun)

Example of Incomplete dominance is when someone with curly hair and another person with straight hair produce a child with wavy hair. (Sylvia Mader, Human Biology 10th edition)

Compendium One

Compendium One: CELLS

This first unit is about cells and how they are incorporated into all life. It also shows that all cells are contained of atoms and how they are bonded to form many different organs and other units. In chapter three, the book shows the different parts to a cell..and you can relate some of the parts of a cell to human organs. The cell has a “powerhouse” or what I refer to is the “brain” and many other parts that can translate into human organs.

Cells are made up of atoms and atoms are made up of:

1. Protons- which have a positive charge and are inside the nucleus
2. Neutrons- have a negative charge and are inside the nucleus
3. Electrons- circle around the nucleus

When you are trying to put together two atoms and 1 atom has one less electron and have an opposite attraction you get ionic bonding.
When you try to put two atoms together that have an even number of electrons and are attracted together you get covalent bonding.

Organic Molecules



1. Carbohydrates consist of simple carbohydrates, complex carbohydrates, and fiber
2. Lipids are fats to animals, and oils to plants. They contain more energy
3. Proteins have amino acids and have an unusual shape that is necessaryfor continuation.
4. Nucleic Acids consist of DNA and RNA and uses ATP to transport energy.
DNA forms helix RNA does not for helix

Cells are very interesting in the fact that new cells are produced from cells that are already present. Some of the structures of the animal cell can almost be related to a human being.

1. Plasma membrane: think of it as human skin because it is the outermost part of the cell. In the plasma membrane there are a couple of processes that take place

“Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from the area of highest concentration to the area of lower concentration, until they are equally distributed” (Sylvia S. Mader, Human Biology 10th Edition)

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across the plasma membrane

Active transport is movement from lower to higher concentrations and requires proteins

2. Nucleus you can think of as a humans heart. It keeps the cell going. The nucleus keeps the cells genetic information.

3. Endoplasmic Reticulum has two different parts the Rough ER is where proteins are processed and modified and the Smooth ER processes and transports to the plasma membrane or the Golgi Apparatus.

4. Golgi Apparatus and lysosomes you can think of as the digestive system. It is where proteins and lipids are processed, packaged and secreted.

5. Mitochondria are like the brain of a cell. It processes ATP for energy and keeps the cell going.

There are four different types of tissues.

1. Connective- connects (tendons, bone, ligaments)
Fibrous, supportive, bone, and fluid tissues

2. Muscular- moves the body (muscles of the body, heart)
Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac

3. Nervous- conducts impulses (brain)
Neurons and Neuroglia

4. Epithelial- covers the body (skin)
Simple, Columnar, Cuboidal, Squamous, Pseudostratified, Transitional, Stratified.

Figure 4.12 (page 74-75) goes into all the different systems which has a good representation of how each system works.

Cells are a part of life. They are so tiny, but are so important. They are what make up man, animals, plants....just about everything! Every little thing about cells; how they bond, how they work, and how they make up objects is amazing.

First Blog!

Hello All, My name is Sarah Brantner and I'm 24 years old. I don't really have a favorite artist, although I love music...mostly country! I am taking this class as a prerequisite for the nursing program. I hope to learn and understand human biology and I hope to do well in this class so I can go further with my studies :)

Three interesting facts about myself or my family:

1. My son is 19 months old and is one of the reasons I am going back to school!

2. My husband is a flight instructor for Embry Riddle, and I absolutely HATE flying!

3. I am a Certified Pharmacy Technician