Compendium Eight: Evolution

I. Human Evolution

• A. Origin of Life
• B. Biological Evolution
• C. Classification of Humans
• D. Evolution of Hominids
• E. Evolution of Humans
  

II. Global Ecology and Human Interference

• A. Nature of Ecosystems
• B. Energy Flow
• C. Global Biogeochemical

III. Human Population, Planetary Resources and Conservation

• A. Human Population Growth
• B. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
• C. Biodiversity
• D. Working Toward a Sustainable Society

I. Human Evolution

A. Origin of Life

---Primitive Earth----

Sun and Planets formed by dust and debris

4.6 billion years ago the solar system was formed

Atomosphere was much different

H2O, N2, and CO2

H2O only existed as gas

----Small Organic Molecules----

RNA needed for first cell

Protocell (carry metabolism but can't reproduce; heterotroph:takes in preformed food)

The true cell (can reproduce, RNA, messanger RNA, Protocyte could synthesize DNA)

B. Biological Evolution

----Common Descent----

Charles Darvin

Fossils are best evidence for evolution

Fossils consist of only hard materials

Transitional Fossils (Archaeopteryx Fossils and Ambulocetus natans)

----Other Evidence-----

Biogeographical evidence (distribution of plants and animals)

Anatomical Evidence (homologous, analogous, Vestigial structures)

Biochemical Evidence (DNA, ATP, different amino acids)

----Intelligent Design----

Faith based, and not scientific

----Natural Selection----

Species adapt to environment

Critical Elements (Variation, Competition for Limited Resources, Adaptation)

C. Classification of Humans

----DNA Data and Human Evolution----

Using DNA more

DNA sequencing

----Humans are Primates----

Mobile limbs, grasping hands, flattened face, binocular vision, complex brain

----Comparing Human Skeleton to the Chimpanzee----

Human Spine exits from center; Ape exits at rear

Human Spine is S shaped; Ape is slightly curved

Human Pelvis is bowl shaped; Ape is longer and narrow

Human Femur is angled inward; Ape is outward

Human knee can support more weight

(http://www.whyevolution.com/chimps.html)

D. Evolution of Hominids

----The first hominid----

Branch of the evolutionary tree

----Hominid Features----

Bipedal posture (walk on two feet)

Shape of face

Brain size

----Earliest Fossil Hominids----

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Orrorin tugensis

Ardipithecus Kadabba

----Evolution of Australopithecines----

Slender

Powerful (strong upper bodies)

----Southern Africa----

Limbs are apelike

Large brain

----Eastern Africa----

Lucy (famous fossil)

Brain is small

(http://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view?back=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.yahoo.com%2Fsearch%3Fei%3DUTF-8%26p%3Dlucy%2Band%2Bhominid%2Bpictures&w=375&h=500&imgurl=static.flickr.com%2F2207%2F2170077028_6286ff2a81.jpg&size=128.9kB&name=2170077028_6286ff2a81.jpg&rcurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flickr.com%2Fphotos%2Fsortingoutscience%2F2170077028%2F&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flickr.com%2Fphotos%2Fsortingoutscience%2F2170077028%2F&p=lucy+hominid&type=jpeg&no=1&tt=137&oid=92a57dcf52db6888&fusr=Sam_Wise&hurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flickr.com%2Fphotos%2Fsortingoutscience%2F&tit=Lucy%2C+upright&sigr=11qk93jq5&sigi=11gn73jn5&sigb=123rmr54q&sigh=11fbhdulu)

E. Evolution of Humans

----Early humans----

Homo habilis (2 million years ago)

Speech led to hunting

Hunters and gatherers shared food

Culture Begins

Homo Erectus ( 1.9 million years ago)

Have larger brain

Flatter face

Taller

Africa

Used Fire

---Evolution of Modern Humans----

Homo Sapiens

Multiregional continueity hypothesis (different)

Out-of-Africa hypothesis (same)

----Neandertals----

Massive brow ridges

Slightly larger brains

Muscled

Limbs were shorter and thicker

Ice Age

----Cro-magnons----

Oldest fossils

Replaced neandertals in Middle East

First to have language

Drawings on wall

----Human Variation----

Different ethnicities

Colder regions have bulkier body, shorter limbs, and smaller ears and digits

II. Global Ecology and Human Interferance

A. Nature of Ecosystems

----Ecosystems----

Temperature and Rainfall define binomes

Aquatic ecosystems (salt and fresh water)

Ocean accounts for 70% of Earth

----Biotic Components of an Ecosystem----

Living things

Autotrophs (inorganic nutrients and outside energy; "producers")

Heterotrophs (need source of organinc nutrients; consume food, herbavores, carnivores, and omnivores)

Niche (role of an organism)

----Energy Flow and Chemical Cycle----

Chemical cycle begins when producers take inorganic nutirents from physical environment

Evergy flow begins when producers absorb solar energy

All energy content converts to heat

B. Energy Flow

Food Web

Grazing Food Web

Detrital Food Web

Trophic levels (grazing and Detrital)

Ecological Pyramids (10% of energy level is available for next level)

C. Global Biogeochemical Cycles

----Water cycle----

1. Evaporation from ocean

2. Prescipitation to ocean/land

3. Transpiration from plants and evaporation from soil

4. Fresh water to ocean

5. Runoff

6. Aquifers

(http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclehi.html)

----The Carbon Cycle----

1. Photosynthesis

2. Respiration

3. Give off Biocarbonates

4. Bicarbonate in water equal to bicarbonate in air

5. Decomposation/waste

6. Fossil Fuels

7. Distruction of vegitation and combustion

--Global Warming----

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg)

----The Nitrogen Cycle----

1. Nitrogen Fixation

2. Nitrogen gas converts to Nitrate

3. Ammonium is converted to Nitrate (soil)

4. Nitrate-producing bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate

5. Convert nitrate to nitrate

6. Assimilation

7. Denitrification

8. Human activites alter (fertilizers)

(http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9s.html)

----The Phosphorus Cycle----

1. Oceanic sediments move to land

2. Weathering

3. Becomes available to plants

4. Animals eat producers

5. Death and Decay of Animals

6. Runoffs

7. On land again

8. Human activities interfere

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Phoscycle-EPA.jpg)

III. Human Population, Planetary Resources, and Conservation

A. Human Population Growth

----MDC's and LDC's

MDC's (decline in death rate, and no leveling off)

LDC's (level off)

3 age groups (Prereproductive, reproductive, and postreproductive)

B. Human Use of resources and Pollution

non-renewable resources and renewable resources

----Land----

Beaches and Human Habitation (70%)

Semiarid lands and Human Habitation (animals overgraze land and soil can't soak in water)

Tropical Rain forest and Human Habitation (deforestation)

----Water----

Increasing water supplies (dams and aquafiers)

Conservation of water

----Food----

growing crops, farming animals, and fishing

modern farming negatives (planting few genetic variance, heavy use of fertilizers, generous watering, excessive fuel consumption)

Soil loss and degradation

Green revolutions (genetic engineering)

Domestic Livestock

----Energy----

Non-Renewable resources (fossil fuels; oil, natural gas)

Renewable Resources

Hydropower (falling water)

Geotherman Energy (uranium, thorium, radium, plutonium)

Wind power

Solar Hydrogen Revolution (collected, converted, and stored)

----Minerals----

Non-renewable raw materials from the Earth's crust

Dangerous metals

Hazardous Waste

C. Biodiversity

----Loss of Biodiversity----

Habitat loss

Alien Species (exotics)

Pollution (acid deposition, global warming, ozone depletion, synthetic organic chemicals)

Overexploration (taking exotic plants and animals out of habitat)

---Direct Value of Biodiversity----

Medicinal Value

Agricultrual Value

Consumptive use Value

----Indirect Value of Biodiversity----

Waste disposal

Provision of freshwater

prevention of soil erosion

Biogeochemical cycles

Regulation of climate

ecotourism

Compendium 7: Reproductive

I. Reproductive System

• A. Human Life Cycle
• B. Male Reproductive System
• C. Female Reproductive System
• D. Female Hormone Levels
• E. Control of Reproduction
• F. Sexually Transmitted Diseases

II. Development and Aging

• A. Fertilization
• B. PreEmbryonic and Embryonic Development
• C. Fetal Development
• D. Pregnancy and Birth
• E. Development after Birth
  
  

I. Reproductive System

A. Human Life Cycle

---Mitosis and Meiosis---

All cells contain 46 chromosomes

Mitosis takes place with growth and repair

Meosis take place is testes and ovaries (sperm and egg)

During Meiosis the number of chromosomes is 23

Zygote is the first cell of new human

Sperm and egg both carry 23 chromosomes

Zygote has 46 chromosomes

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sexual_cycle.svg)

B. Male Reproductive System

---Parts of the male reproductive system---

Testes: Produce sperm and sex horomones

Epididymides: Ducts where sperm mature and are stored

Van Deferentia: Conduct and store sperm

Seminal Vesicles: Contribute nutrients and fluid to sperm

Prostate Gland: Contributes fluid to sperm

Urethra: Conducts sperm

Bulbourethral Glands: Mucus containing fluid to semen

Penis: Gland of sexual intercourse

(http://healthcare.utah.edu/healthinfo/adult/men/maleanat.htm)

---Orgasm in Males---

During sexual arousal autonomic nerves release Nitric oxide which leads to the production of cGMP. cGMP fill erective tissue upwith blood. Veings take the blood away from the penis are compressed which causes an erection.

Contractions that expel the sperm are part of the male orgasm

400 million sperm in 3.5 ml of semen

---Male Gonads, the Testes---

The scrotum helps regulate the temperature of testes

Seminiferous tubles are packed with cells undergoing spermatogenesis

During the production of sperm primaray spermocytes moves away from outer wall, increase in size and go through meiosis I.

Secondary Spermocytes go through meiosis II to produce 4 spermatides each containing 23 chromosomes

It takes 74 days form sperm to develop

Sperm has 3 parts (head, middle piece, and tail)

Middle piece produces energy for the tail

Sperm only live up to 48 hours in female

---Hormonal Regulation in Males---

Hypothalamus controls Testes GnRH

FSH promotes production of sperm

LH controls production of testostrone

Testostrone is main sex horomone; gives male characteristics and helps with muscular development

C. Female Reproductive System

---Genital Tract---

Ovaries: Produce eggs and sex hormones

Oviducts: Conduct eggs; location of fertilization

Uterus: Fetus develops here

Cervix: Opening of Uterus

Vagina: Birth canal; menstral flow exit; and sex organ

---External Genitals---

Vulva: two large folds

Glans clitoris: Sexual arousal

Urinary and reproductive system are completely seperate

(http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/reproduc.htm)

---Orgasm in Females---

Labia minora, vaginal wall, and clitoris become engorged with blood

Vagina expands and elongates

D. Female Hormone Levels

---Ovaria Cycle: Non-pregnant---

Primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I. Haploid with 23 chromosomes

Secondary oocyte goes through meosis II only if fertilized

This process is ovulation

If egg is not fertilized the corpus luteum degenerates and cause menstral cycle

---Phases of Ovarian Cycle---

Hypothalamus produces GnRH which produces FSH and LH

---Estrogen and Progesterone---

Estrogen is responsible for secondary sex characteristics

Both are responsible for breast development

Menopause: no long have ovarian cycle

---Uterine Cycle: Non-pregnant---

Days 1-5: Flow of blood out of vagina

Days 6-13: Proliferative Phase

Day 14: Ovulation

Days 15-28: Secretory Phase

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:MenstrualCycle2.png)

---Fertilization and Pregnancy---

Placenta formed from maternal and fetal development

Egg implants in endometrium

E. Control of Reproduction

---Birth Control Methods---

Contraceptives (medications and devices)

IUD

Diaphram

Condoms (male and female)

Implants

Injections

Pills

Vasectomy and Tubal Ligation

---Infertility---

Low sperm count (caused by drinking and smoking)

Body weight

Blocked oviducts

Treatments include Arificial Insemination, In Vitro fertilization, Gamate Intrafallopian Transfer, Surrogate mothers

F. Sexually Transmitted Diseases

---STD's from Virus---

HIV

Genital Warts (caused by HPV, warts on penis and vaginal opening)

Genital Herpes (herpes simplex virus)

Hepatitis (infects the liver)

Hepatitis A: through oral/anal contact

Hepatitis B: Sexual contact/blood

Hepatitis C: Post transfusion

Hepatitis D and G: Sexually transmitted

Hepatitis E: Contaminated water

---STD's by Bacteria---

Chlamydia

Gonorrhea

Syphilis

II. Development and Aging

A. Fertilization

---Steps of Fertilization---

Several sperm try to fertilize egg by only one will succeed

When sperm touches the egg, the plasma membrane depolarizes so no other sperm can get in

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sperm-egg.jpg)

B. PreEmbryonic and Embryonic Development

---Processes---

Cleavage: Divides

Growth: Grows

Morphegenesis: Shaping

Differentiation: Structure and Function

---Extraembryonic Membranes---

Chorion: Fetal half of placenta

Allantois: umblical blood vessels

Yolk Sac: First site of blood cell formation

Amnoin: Cushion for the embryo

---Stages of Development---

PreEmbryonic (first week, divides as it passes to the uterus)

Embryonic (2nd week-end of 2nd month)

2nd week: Implatation occurs; chorion produces HCG; Gastrulation occurs

3rd week: Nervous system and heart develop

4th and 5th week: Body moves, little limb buds appear, head enlarges

6th-8th week: Can recognize as a human, reflex actions

C. Fetal Development

Blood of mother and fetus never mix

Umbilical Cord is lifelife of fetus

Umbilical arteries carry oxygen poor blood away from fetus

Umbilical veins take oxygen rich blood to fetus

---Events of Fetal Development---

3rd and 4th month: Head is large, bone starts to appear, male or female, fetal heartbeat is loud

5th-7th month: Movement in felt, translucent skin, weighs 3 pounds

8th-9th month: About 7.5 pounds, head down by cervix

---Development of Male and Female Genitals---

Males XY; Females XX

at 6 weeks males and females have same buds but will appear where penis or clitoris will be

at 14 weeks should be able to see if male or female

D. Pregnancy and Birth

Energy level flucuates in mother

The uterus relaxes (progestrone controls this)

Blood volume increases by 40%

Cardiac output increases by 20 to 30%

Vericose veins

---Birth---

Uterus contracts throughout birth

True labor contractions are regular every 15 minutes and last for 40 seconds

Oxytocin stimulates the contractions

Stage 1: Effacement and breaking of the water

Stage 2: Contractions every 1 to 2 minutes lasting 1 minute, baby is delivered

Stage 3: After birth, placenta is delivered

E. Development after Birth

---Hypothesis of Aging---

Genetic basis

Decline in hormonal system

Failure or decline in other systems

---Effects of age on body systems---

Skin: Thinner and less elastic, feels cold

Processing and transporting: Heart shrinks, arteries and more rigid, higher blood pressure

Integration and Coordination: Cognitive skills remain the same, reaction time slowes, decrease in bone density

Reproductive System: Menopause and andropause

Lab Project: Build a Human Limb

For this lab project we needed to construct a human limb and show the different processes of and the part of cell function. I constructed the lower arm for this project which includes the Ulna, Radius, wrist and elbow joints. I also included a representation of the muscles in the lower arm. We also needed to include action potential and the different elements that go into it.

Here is a picture of the items that I used for this project:

2 large square tubing represents the Ulna and Radius

2 Joints represent the Trochlea and Captilium

2 Hinges represent the Wrist and Elbow Joints

CAT 5 cable represents the Sarcolemma and T Tubles

CAT 5 cable also represents the Myosin Strands

Zip Ties: (white) Acton Strands (black) Calcium

Washer represents the Cell Body

Springs represent the muscles in the arm (Carpal muscle groups)

Electical Wire represents the Axon, Myeline Sheath, and Axon Terminal

Here is a diagram of a Neuron

Here is a diagram of the propagation of an Action potential

The top half of this photo is when the myosin is sliding with the actin. Included in this photo is the cross-bridge for when the myosin obtains the Ca+. The bottoms half is a representation of the Sarcolemma and the T Tubule Membrane.

When these processes happen they all contribute to the action of muscles. Muscles need to have these processes in order to make contraction and movement complete. Action potential is needed because regulates the potassium and sodium ions, which help with movement.

Online Lab: Muscle Function

This lab is representing how muscle function works when there are different circumstances happening. In the first part we tested the effects of cold weather and muscles. In the second part we were testing to see how fatigue effects the muscles.

1. The three changes that I noticed while doing this experiment were that muscles move slower when cold. They also work slower when they are fatigued. When flexing your muscles, their shape changes.

2. While testing with the cold water experiment (picture to the left is my hand in cold water for 1 minute) the muscles move a lot slower. Before I put my hand in the cold water, I could pump the blood pressure bulb 35 times. When I removed my hand from the water I could only pump it 28 times.

3. While testing for fatigue, the muscles also performed slower. Here are my results for that test:

1. 43

2. 41

3. 37

4. 34

5. 29

6. 25

7. 23

8. 24

9. 20

When testing the cold temperature experiment, the reason that the pumps went down after removing my hand from the water is that cold weather has an effect on muscles. If you think about it like this, when your standing outside in the cold how does your body respond? Usually your heart rate is much slower; therefore, when your cold, the muscles in the body will move slower because of the temperature difference. All processes in the body become slower is very cold climate.

When the body gets fatigued it takes a lot more energy to produce a process. While doing the experiment we were asked not to take breaks so our muscles became fatigued. When you work out you burn more energy (ATP) than you can produce. If you can't produce the energy to support the activity, then you become fatigued.

Online Lab: Leech Neurons

1. An electrode is the machine that measures the amount of activity in neurons. The device "delivers electric shock" to a patient or specimen to stimulate cells.

2. The leech is used for medical purposes because many people don't think anything when a leech is killed. Leeches also have a high number of neurons and cells for how small of a creature they are.

3. A motor neuron is when the impulses are going away from the central nervous system. A sensory neuron is when the impulses are going to the central nervous system.

4. I believe that the leech does feel pain. In our text book, the definition for pain receptor is "Sensory receptor that is sensitive to chemicals released by damaged tissues or excess stimuli of heat or pressure" Leeches do have sensory receptors and pain in inflicted on the leech, so it does feel pain.

5. I really like this lab because you can use the dye and the UV light to see the neurons more clearly. I also like that you could stimulate the neurons with different objects to see what stimulates them even more.

6. I really liked this lab and I think it is a great representation of what neurons do when they are stimulated. The only thing I didn't like about this lab, was that you couldn't adjust the screen size, which made it hard to see. I wish the images would have been a bit bigger.

Compendium Six

I. Skeletal System

• A. Overview of Skeletal System
• B. Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair
• C. Bones of the Axial Skeleton
• D. Bones of Appendicular Skeleton

I. Muscular System

• A. Overview of Muscular System
• B. Skeletal Muscle Fiber and Contraction
• C. Whole Muscle Contraction
• D. Muscle Disorders
• E. Homeostasis
  
  

I. Skeletal System

A. Overview of Skeletal System

--Functions of the Skeletal System--

• Support the body
  
• Protects soft body parts
  
• Produces blood cells
  
• Stores minerals and fats
  
• Permits flexible body movement

---Anatomy of a long bone---

• Shaft is diaphysis
  
• End of bond in epiphysis-large spongy bone with red bone marrow. Surrounded with articular cartilage
  
• Bone

1. Compact

2. Spongy

3. Red Bone Marrow

• Cartilage
  

1. More flexible but not as strong as bone

2. No nerves; no blood vessels

3. Hyaline Cartilage

4. Fibrocartilage

5. Elastic Cartilage

• Fibrous Connective Tissue
  

1. Make up ligaments

B. Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair

• Osteoblasts- bone forming cells
• Osteocytes- maintain structure of bone
• Osteoclasts- bone absorbing cells
• Bone Development

1. Ossification- formation of bones

2. Intermembrous Ossification

• Develope between sheets of fibrous tissue
• Connective tissue cells become osteoblasts
• Trabeculae of spongy bone and spongy bone remains inside

• Endochodral Ossification

1. Bone replaces cartilage

2. The cartilage model

3. The bone collar

4. The primary ossification center

5. The medullary cavity and secondary ossification site

6. The epipseal plate

7. The final size of the bone (18 females)(20 males)

• Bone Remodeling
  

1. 18% of bone is modeled in a year

2. Allows the body to regulate calcium

3. PTH- hormone

4. Calcitonin- opposite hormone of PTH

• Bone Repair

1. Hemotoma

2. Fibrocartilage

3. Bony Callus

4. Remodeling

C. Bone of the Axial Skeleton

• Skull


• The Bones of the Skull

The cranium protects the brain

Frontal- Forehead

Parietal- Sides

Occipital- base of the skull

Temporal- ears

Sphenoid- floor of the cranium

Ethmoid- forms orbits and nasal structure

• Facial Bones

Mandible- lower jaw

Maxillae- upper jaw

Zygomatic- cheek bone

Nasal Bones- bridge of nose

• Hyoid Bone

Attached to temporal bones by muscle ligaments and to the larynx by membrane

Associated with swallowing

• Vertebral Column

33 vertebra

4 curvatures

spinal cord passes through it

mid line of the back

named according to location

Cervical vertebra- neck

Thoracic- ribs

Lumbar- lower back

Sacral- sacrum

• Rib Cage
  
  

Thoracic cage

12 pairs of bones

7 pairs (upper) "true"ribs

3 pairs (lower) "false" ribs

2 pairs (bottom) "floating" ribs

Sternum protects the heart and lungs

Manubrium, Body, and Xiphoid

D. Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

• Pectoral Girdle and Upper limb

Clavical- top of thorax

Scapula- visible bone in the back

Glenoid cavity

Rotator Cuff

Humerus- upper bone in arm

Radium- outer part of lower arm

Ulna- inside part of lower arm

Carpal bones (metacarpals and phalanges)

• Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
  

Pelvis- pelvic girdle, sacrum, coccyx

Coxal- ilium, ischium, pubis

Acetabulium- hip socket

Femur- upper bone in leg

Tibia- inner lower leg bone

Fibia- outer lower leg bone

Patella- knee cap

Tarsal bone (metacarpal and phalanges)

II. Muscular System

A. Overview of the Muscular System

• Types of Muscles

Smooth Muscles- located in walls of hallow internal organs

Cardiac Muscles- Forms heart wall

Skeletal Muscles

• Functions of Skeletal Muscles
  
  

Support the body

Makes bones move

Maintain body temp

Assist with movement in cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels

Helps protect internal organs and stabilize joints

• Skeletal Muscles of the Body
  
  
  

When muscle contracts it pulls tendons and creates movement

Usually functions in groups

Muscles contract, they shorten

Can only pull, not push

• Names and actions of Skeletal Muscles
  

Named after several factors

Size

Shape

Location

Direction of muscle fibers

Attachment

Number of attachments

Action

B. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Contration

• Muscle fibers and how they slide

Sarcolemma- plasma membrane

Carcoplasm- cytoplasma

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum- ER

Myofibrals- run the length of the muscle

Thick Filaments

Thin Filaments

Sliding Filaments

Control muscularfiber contraction uses the motor neurons

C. Whole Muscle Contraction

• Muscles have motor units (all stimulated at same time)
  
• Energy from muscle contraction

2 energy sources are stored in muscle

2 energy sources are acquired from blood

Glucose and fatty acids

Store limited amounts of ATP

CP pathway

Fermentation

Cellular respiration

• Fast Twitch and Slow Twitch

Fast Twitch (Anaerobic, explosion of energy)

Slow Twitch (Long distance running, more mitochondria)

D. Muscle Disorders

• Spasms
• Cramps
• Strain
• Sprain

E. Homeostasis

• Both systems produce movement
• Both systems protect body parts
• Bones store and release calcium
• Blood cells produce in bone
• Muscle maintains body temp

Compendium Five

I. Nervous System

• A. Overview of the Nervous System
• B. The Central Nervous System
• C. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
• D. The Peripheral Nervous System
• E. Drug Abuse
  

II. Senses

• A. Sensory Receptors and Sensations
• B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
• C. Senses of Taste and Smell
• D. Sense of Vision
• E. Sense of Hearing
• F. Sense of Equilibrium
  

I. The Nervous System

A. Overview of the Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS) (Brain and Spinal Cord)

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) (Nerves)

• 3 Functions

1. Sensory receptors generate nerve impulses that travel through CNS and PNS

2. CNS performs integration

3. CNS generates motor output

• Nervous Tissue

Neurons (cell transmit nerve impulses)

Neuraoglia (support and nourish)

• Neuron Structure

---3 types of neurons---

1. Sensory Neurons

2. Sensory Receptors

3. Interneurons

---Vary in appearances: 3 common parts---

1. Cell Body (nucleus)

2. Dendrites (receive signals)

3. Axon (conducts nerve impulses)

• Myelin Sheath

Cover and protect axons

Node of Ranvier- breaks in axons

Only present on long axons

• Nerve Impulse

Resting Potential (not conducting impulse, sodium and potassium pump)

Action Potential (Change in polarity, Sodium gates (depolarization), Potassium Gates (re polarization)

• Propagation of an Action Potential

Saltatory Conduction

MS and Leukodystrophies

Lorenzo's oil

• Synapse
  

Events that occur:

1. Nerve impulse reach axon terminal

2. Calcium enters terminal

3. Neurotransmitter released and diffuse

There are 100 known Neurotransmitter molecules known

Synaptic Integration: summing up of signals

B. The Central Nervous System

• The Spinal Cord

---Structure of Spinal Cord---

Central Canal- cerebrospinal fluid

Gray Matter- H Shaped

White Matter- Inside the gray matter

---Functions---

Communication from the brain to the nerves

Reflex actions

• The Brain
  

4 Ventricles

---Cerebrum---

telencephalon

largest portion of the brain

2 halves

longitudinal fissure separates the hemispheres

Frontal Lobe- Forehead

Parietal Lobe- Dorsal to the frontal

Occipital Lobe- Dorsal to parietal

Temporal Lobe- Temple and ear

Cerebral Cortex is the out layer of the brain

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Brainlobes.svg)

---Diencephalon---

hypothalamus and the thalamus

---Cerebellum---

under the occipital region

2 portions- white matter

receives sensory input (eyes, ears, joints, muscles)

motor output from cerebral cortex

sends motor impulses to skeletal muscles

---Brain Stem---

Midbrain- Relay station

the Pons- Bundles of axons

Medulla Oblongata

C. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions

• The Limbic System

Primitive emotions and higher mental functions

Amygdala- emotion and sense of fear

Hippocampus- learning and memory

Higher Mental Functions

---Memory---

Short term memory

Long term memory

Sematic Memory (numbers and words)

Episodic Memory (persons, events,)

Skill Memory

---Language and Speech---

Depends mostly on Sematic Memory

D. The Peripheral Nervous System

nerves are composed of axons

12 pairs of cranial nerves (sensory and motor)

---Somatic System---

Skin, skeletal muscles, tendons

Reflexes (automatic response to stimulus)

---Autonomic System---

Regulates activity of cardiac and smooth muscles

---Both Systems---

1. Function automatically and involuntary

2. Innervate all internal organs

3. 2 neurons and 1 ganglia

Produce sympathetic division and Parasympathetic Division

E. Drug Abuse

• Alcohol (liver and brain; depressant; memory loss)
  Nicotine (stimulant; increase heart rate and blood pressure)
• Cocaine (stimulant; cardiac and respiratory arrest)
• Methamphetamine (stimulant; paranoia, hallucinations)
• Heroin (depressant; injected, snorted or inhaled)

II. Senses

A. Sensory Receptors and Sensations

• Dendrites
• Extereceptors (outside of body)
• Intereceptors (inside the body)
• Types of sensory receptors

Chemoreceptors--Chemicals

Pain Receptors

Photoreceptors--Light Energy

Mechanoreceptors--Mechanical

Thermoreceptors--Changes in Temperature

• Sensations occurs when sensory receptors initiate the nerve impulses and then they integrate

B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors

• Proprioceptors (equilibrium, posture, and muscle tone)


• Cutaneous Receptors (dermis; touch, pressure, pain; Meissner Corpuscles; Merkel Disks, and root of hair)
• Pain Receptors (nociceptors)
  

C. Senses of Smell and Taste

• Sense of taste



• 3000 Taste buds

4 Primary tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salty)

The Brain takes the average of tastes to get an average

• Sense of smell

80-90 % of taste is a result of smell

Olfactory Cells

D. Sense of Vision

• Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye

2.5 cm in diameter

sclera-white part of eye

cornea- "windows the eye"

choroid- absorbs stray light rays

iris- regulates the size of pupil

pupil- center of the iris which light enters

ciliary body- controls the shape of lens for near or far vision

lens-refracts and focus light rays

retina-contains rods (dark) and cones (bright light)

E. Sense of Hearing

• Anatomy and Physiology of the ear

Outer ear (pinna and auditory canal)

Middle Ear (tympanic membrane; oval and round window; malleus, incus, and stapes; auditory tube)

Outer Ear (semicircular canals, vestibule, cochlea)

Waves enter the auditory canal, the malleus moves back and forth, passed to the incus, when stapes strikes the membrane the waves move

E. Sense of Equilibrium

• Rotational Equilibrium
  



• Gravitational Equilibrium