Sarah Brantner

Self Evaluation

2008-07-24T12:42:00.000-07:00

1. I was really proud of all of my Lab Projects, the online labs, and towards the end, I really liked my Compendiums.

2. I think I could have used some work on the Ethical Essays and the Peer feedback.

3. I believe I should get a low A

4. I think I could devote more time to all the assignments

1. I really enjoyed the last unit that we did. Evolution is really exciting to me.

2. Unit one, the cells, I was really distanced from.

3. The feed back from the teacher was what helped me because it helped me with later assignments

4. I don’t think there was anything that was confusing.

5. Evolution was what surprised me the most.

Ethical Essay 4

2008-07-24T12:40:00.000-07:00

The world is becoming a place where reproduction isn’t as important as it used to be. As, the world goes on, the population needs to go up in order for the world to continue with life. People are beginning to find it very hard to have children. If we want to keep life of humans going, we need to reproduce.

People are finding that financial constraints are keeping them from reproduction. If you think about how the rate of inflation is going up, it’s no wonder people cannot afford children. Raising a child is very expensive, and with the costs of everything else going up, it makes it very hard to raise a family. An example is that the cost of grain is going up. Pretty much anything that we consume is made up of grain, therefore making food prices go up. A very big issue now is the cost of oil going up. With going to work, school and any other random places people go to, it’s costing them about twice as much to fill up the gas tank. This puts a strain on raising a family and people are having to work twice as much just to afford anything.

There is something that needs to be done because if the cost of everything goes up, reproduction is going to be last on peoples list. We need to learn how to conserve and utilize the resources that we have more efficiently.

2008-07-24T11:45:00.000-07:00

1. Homo sapiens....Brian Hayden..my son (human)..Humans would be an example of Preditor.

2. Canis lupus familiaris...This is my dog..Yoshi...He would be mutualistic and preditor. He is a domesticated species.

3. Premnas biaculeatus..maroon clownfish...Clownfish are considered commensal. They are domesticated.

4. Premnas biaculeatus..This is Ferris my cat. She would be Mutualistic and a preditor. She is domesticated.

5. Solenopsis....Red Ants...These would be preditor/prey. They are not domesticated..at least by choice ;)

6. Populus tremuloides:...Quaking aspen....They would be Mutualistic. They can be domesticated.

7. Malus domestica ...I deal with apple juice on a daily basis..This would be mutualistic. They can be domesticated.

8. Ammophila sabulosa...Digging wasps. They are Mutualistic..They are not domesticated.

9. Gallus gallus (chicken)...We eat chicken eggs for breakfast everyday..They are prey. They can be domesticated.

10.Brassica oleracea...Broccoli. This would be commensal. They are domesticated.

11. Bos primigenius primigenius . We eat meat everyday from cattle. They are mutualistic. They are domesticated.

12. Sus scrofa domesticus. Domesticated pig. They are prey. They are domesticated

13. Citrus sinensis . Oranges in orange juice. They are mutualistic. They are domesticated.

14. Danaus plexippus. Butterfly. They are mutualistic. They are not domesticated.

15. Acute viral nasopharyngitis. Common Cold. Parasitic. Not domesticated

16. Osmia ribifloris. Bee. Mutualistic. They are not domesticated.

17. Cucurbita . Squash. Mutualistic. They are domesticated.

18. Cucurbita pepo. Zuccini. Mutualistic. They are domesticated

19. Gingivitis . Inflammation of the gums. Parasitic. Not domesticated.

20. Allium. Onions. Mutualistic. Domesticated.

Online Lab: Human Population

2008-07-22T15:06:00.000-07:00

This is my lower fertility rate diagram.

This is the high fertility rate diagram

1. The high fertility rate country was Venezuela. The fertility rate for this country is 3.30.

2. The low fertility rate country was Spain with the fertility rate of 1.40.

3. The high fertility results in more younger people because younger people are the people who produce offspring. With the more people having babies and reproducing, the younger people statistics should go up. This will effect future population growth because when those who are born grow up, they will more than likely have children themselves, making the population grow.

4. The low fertility leads to a lot of middle aged people because they are not reproducing, making the numbers less. If people do not reproduce, then the population will not grow, and those people will get older. The population will decrease.

5. If there were less children in the world people would be: career oriented, depressed, more energy, selfish, goal oriented, educated, serious

If there were more children in the world people would be: exhausted, happy, family driven, less career oriented, playful, joyous, excitement

Online Lab: Reproduction

2008-07-22T14:14:00.000-07:00

The list that I have come up with for this lab about fetal development:

1. Fertilization occurs when the sperm and the egg meet and start forming an embryo. this is significant because it's the very beginning of fetal development.

2. Implantation occurs about 3 to 4 weeks after fertilization. This is important because the embryo must grow in the uterus.

(www.babycenter.com)

3. Central Nervous system and Brain develop usually occurs during the 5th week. This is important because the Brain and CNS are needed to keep life going.

4. Internal Organs have formed and the heart is beginning to pump usually occurs during the 8th week. Like the CNS and the Brain, we need all internal organs.

(http://www.babycenter.com/)

5. Eyes and Ears develop during the 5th week as well. Ears and eyes are needed for balance and hearing.

6. Genitals are forming usually occurs during the 10th week and are fully developed by the 12th week.

7. Baby goes to "head down position" usually occurs during the 30th week. This prepares the baby and mother for delivery.

8. Lungs are fully developed usually by 30-34th week. The baby needs their lungs in order to breath, so this is an important organ to be developed.

9. Immune system is developing usually happens around the 34th week. This is needed because baby needs to fight off infections.

http://www.babycenter.com/)

10. Birth occurs usually at the 40th week.

(www.wikipedia.com)

Compendium Eight: Evolution

2008-07-17T11:19:00.000-07:00

I. Human Evolution

A. Origin of Life
B. Biological Evolution
C. Classification of Humans
D. Evolution of Hominids
E. Evolution of Humans

II. Global Ecology and Human Interference

A. Nature of Ecosystems
B. Energy Flow
C. Global Biogeochemical

III. Human Population, Planetary Resources and Conservation

A. Human Population Growth
B. Human Use of Resources and Pollution
C. Biodiversity
D. Working Toward a Sustainable Society

I. Human Evolution

A. Origin of Life

---Primitive Earth----

Sun and Planets formed by dust and debris

4.6 billion years ago the solar system was formed

Atomosphere was much different

H2O, N2, and CO2

H2O only existed as gas

----Small Organic Molecules----

RNA needed for first cell

Protocell (carry metabolism but can't reproduce; heterotroph:takes in preformed food)

The true cell (can reproduce, RNA, messanger RNA, Protocyte could synthesize DNA)

B. Biological Evolution

----Common Descent----

Charles Darvin

Fossils are best evidence for evolution

Fossils consist of only hard materials

Transitional Fossils (Archaeopteryx Fossils and Ambulocetus natans)

----Other Evidence-----

Biogeographical evidence (distribution of plants and animals)

Anatomical Evidence (homologous, analogous, Vestigial structures)

Biochemical Evidence (DNA, ATP, different amino acids)

----Intelligent Design----

Faith based, and not scientific

----Natural Selection----

Species adapt to environment

Critical Elements (Variation, Competition for Limited Resources, Adaptation)

C. Classification of Humans

----DNA Data and Human Evolution----

Using DNA more

DNA sequencing

----Humans are Primates----

Mobile limbs, grasping hands, flattened face, binocular vision, complex brain

----Comparing Human Skeleton to the Chimpanzee----

Human Spine exits from center; Ape exits at rear

Human Spine is S shaped; Ape is slightly curved

Human Pelvis is bowl shaped; Ape is longer and narrow

Human Femur is angled inward; Ape is outward

Human knee can support more weight

(http://www.whyevolution.com/chimps.html)

D. Evolution of Hominids

----The first hominid----

Branch of the evolutionary tree

----Hominid Features----

Bipedal posture (walk on two feet)

Shape of face

Brain size

----Earliest Fossil Hominids----

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Orrorin tugensis

Ardipithecus Kadabba

----Evolution of Australopithecines----

Slender

Powerful (strong upper bodies)

----Southern Africa----

Limbs are apelike

Large brain

----Eastern Africa----

Lucy (famous fossil)

Brain is small

(http://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view?back=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.yahoo.com%2Fsearch%3Fei%3DUTF-8%26p%3Dlucy%2Band%2Bhominid%2Bpictures&w=375&h=500&imgurl=static.flickr.com%2F2207%2F2170077028_6286ff2a81.jpg&size=128.9kB&name=2170077028_6286ff2a81.jpg&rcurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flickr.com%2Fphotos%2Fsortingoutscience%2F2170077028%2F&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flickr.com%2Fphotos%2Fsortingoutscience%2F2170077028%2F&p=lucy+hominid&type=jpeg&no=1&tt=137&oid=92a57dcf52db6888&fusr=Sam_Wise&hurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flickr.com%2Fphotos%2Fsortingoutscience%2F&tit=Lucy%2C+upright&sigr=11qk93jq5&sigi=11gn73jn5&sigb=123rmr54q&sigh=11fbhdulu)

E. Evolution of Humans

----Early humans----

Homo habilis (2 million years ago)

Speech led to hunting

Hunters and gatherers shared food

Culture Begins

Homo Erectus ( 1.9 million years ago)

Have larger brain

Flatter face

Taller

Africa

Used Fire

---Evolution of Modern Humans----

Homo Sapiens

Multiregional continueity hypothesis (different)

Out-of-Africa hypothesis (same)

----Neandertals----

Massive brow ridges

Slightly larger brains

Muscled

Limbs were shorter and thicker

Ice Age

----Cro-magnons----

Oldest fossils

Replaced neandertals in Middle East

First to have language

Drawings on wall

----Human Variation----

Different ethnicities

Colder regions have bulkier body, shorter limbs, and smaller ears and digits

II. Global Ecology and Human Interferance

A. Nature of Ecosystems

----Ecosystems----

Temperature and Rainfall define binomes

Aquatic ecosystems (salt and fresh water)

Ocean accounts for 70% of Earth

----Biotic Components of an Ecosystem----

Living things

Autotrophs (inorganic nutrients and outside energy; "producers")

Heterotrophs (need source of organinc nutrients; consume food, herbavores, carnivores, and omnivores)

Niche (role of an organism)

----Energy Flow and Chemical Cycle----

Chemical cycle begins when producers take inorganic nutirents from physical environment

Evergy flow begins when producers absorb solar energy

All energy content converts to heat

B. Energy Flow

Food Web

Grazing Food Web

Detrital Food Web

Trophic levels (grazing and Detrital)

Ecological Pyramids (10% of energy level is available for next level)

C. Global Biogeochemical Cycles

----Water cycle----

1. Evaporation from ocean

2. Prescipitation to ocean/land

3. Transpiration from plants and evaporation from soil

4. Fresh water to ocean

5. Runoff

6. Aquifers

(http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclehi.html)

----The Carbon Cycle----

1. Photosynthesis

2. Respiration

3. Give off Biocarbonates

4. Bicarbonate in water equal to bicarbonate in air

5. Decomposation/waste

6. Fossil Fuels

7. Distruction of vegitation and combustion

--Global Warming----

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg)

----The Nitrogen Cycle----

1. Nitrogen Fixation

2. Nitrogen gas converts to Nitrate

3. Ammonium is converted to Nitrate (soil)

4. Nitrate-producing bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate

5. Convert nitrate to nitrate

6. Assimilation

7. Denitrification

8. Human activites alter (fertilizers)

(http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9s.html)

----The Phosphorus Cycle----

1. Oceanic sediments move to land

2. Weathering

3. Becomes available to plants

4. Animals eat producers

5. Death and Decay of Animals

6. Runoffs

7. On land again

8. Human activities interfere

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Phoscycle-EPA.jpg)

III. Human Population, Planetary Resources, and Conservation

A. Human Population Growth

----MDC's and LDC's

MDC's (decline in death rate, and no leveling off)

LDC's (level off)

3 age groups (Prereproductive, reproductive, and postreproductive)

B. Human Use of resources and Pollution

non-renewable resources and renewable resources

----Land----

Beaches and Human Habitation (70%)

Semiarid lands and Human Habitation (animals overgraze land and soil can't soak in water)

Tropical Rain forest and Human Habitation (deforestation)

----Water----

Increasing water supplies (dams and aquafiers)

Conservation of water

----Food----

growing crops, farming animals, and fishing

modern farming negatives (planting few genetic variance, heavy use of fertilizers, generous watering, excessive fuel consumption)

Soil loss and degradation

Green revolutions (genetic engineering)

Domestic Livestock

----Energy----

Non-Renewable resources (fossil fuels; oil, natural gas)

Renewable Resources

Hydropower (falling water)

Geotherman Energy (uranium, thorium, radium, plutonium)

Wind power

Solar Hydrogen Revolution (collected, converted, and stored)

----Minerals----

Non-renewable raw materials from the Earth's crust

Dangerous metals

Hazardous Waste

C. Biodiversity

----Loss of Biodiversity----

Habitat loss

Alien Species (exotics)

Pollution (acid deposition, global warming, ozone depletion, synthetic organic chemicals)

Overexploration (taking exotic plants and animals out of habitat)

---Direct Value of Biodiversity----

Medicinal Value

Agricultrual Value

Consumptive use Value

----Indirect Value of Biodiversity----

Waste disposal

Provision of freshwater

prevention of soil erosion

Biogeochemical cycles

Regulation of climate

ecotourism

Compendium 7: Reproductive

2008-07-17T07:21:00.000-07:00

I. Reproductive System

A. Human Life Cycle
B. Male Reproductive System
C. Female Reproductive System
D. Female Hormone Levels
E. Control of Reproduction
F. Sexually Transmitted Diseases

II. Development and Aging

A. Fertilization
B. PreEmbryonic and Embryonic Development
C. Fetal Development
D. Pregnancy and Birth
E. Development after Birth

I. Reproductive System

A. Human Life Cycle

---Mitosis and Meiosis---

All cells contain 46 chromosomes

Mitosis takes place with growth and repair

Meosis take place is testes and ovaries (sperm and egg)

During Meiosis the number of chromosomes is 23

Zygote is the first cell of new human

Sperm and egg both carry 23 chromosomes

Zygote has 46 chromosomes

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sexual_cycle.svg)

B. Male Reproductive System

---Parts of the male reproductive system---

Testes: Produce sperm and sex horomones

Epididymides: Ducts where sperm mature and are stored

Van Deferentia: Conduct and store sperm

Seminal Vesicles: Contribute nutrients and fluid to sperm

Prostate Gland: Contributes fluid to sperm

Urethra: Conducts sperm

Bulbourethral Glands: Mucus containing fluid to semen

Penis: Gland of sexual intercourse

(http://healthcare.utah.edu/healthinfo/adult/men/maleanat.htm)

---Orgasm in Males---

During sexual arousal autonomic nerves release Nitric oxide which leads to the production of cGMP. cGMP fill erective tissue upwith blood. Veings take the blood away from the penis are compressed which causes an erection.

Contractions that expel the sperm are part of the male orgasm

400 million sperm in 3.5 ml of semen

---Male Gonads, the Testes---

The scrotum helps regulate the temperature of testes

Seminiferous tubles are packed with cells undergoing spermatogenesis

During the production of sperm primaray spermocytes moves away from outer wall, increase in size and go through meiosis I.

Secondary Spermocytes go through meiosis II to produce 4 spermatides each containing 23 chromosomes

It takes 74 days form sperm to develop

Sperm has 3 parts (head, middle piece, and tail)

Middle piece produces energy for the tail

Sperm only live up to 48 hours in female

---Hormonal Regulation in Males---

Hypothalamus controls Testes GnRH

FSH promotes production of sperm

LH controls production of testostrone

Testostrone is main sex horomone; gives male characteristics and helps with muscular development

C. Female Reproductive System

---Genital Tract---

Ovaries: Produce eggs and sex hormones

Oviducts: Conduct eggs; location of fertilization

Uterus: Fetus develops here

Cervix: Opening of Uterus

Vagina: Birth canal; menstral flow exit; and sex organ

---External Genitals---

Vulva: two large folds

Glans clitoris: Sexual arousal

Urinary and reproductive system are completely seperate

(http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/reproduc.htm)

---Orgasm in Females---

Labia minora, vaginal wall, and clitoris become engorged with blood

Vagina expands and elongates

D. Female Hormone Levels

---Ovaria Cycle: Non-pregnant---

Primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I. Haploid with 23 chromosomes

Secondary oocyte goes through meosis II only if fertilized

This process is ovulation

If egg is not fertilized the corpus luteum degenerates and cause menstral cycle

---Phases of Ovarian Cycle---

Hypothalamus produces GnRH which produces FSH and LH

---Estrogen and Progesterone---

Estrogen is responsible for secondary sex characteristics

Both are responsible for breast development

Menopause: no long have ovarian cycle

---Uterine Cycle: Non-pregnant---

Days 1-5: Flow of blood out of vagina

Days 6-13: Proliferative Phase

Day 14: Ovulation

Days 15-28: Secretory Phase

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:MenstrualCycle2.png)

---Fertilization and Pregnancy---

Placenta formed from maternal and fetal development

Egg implants in endometrium

E. Control of Reproduction

---Birth Control Methods---

Contraceptives (medications and devices)

IUD

Diaphram

Condoms (male and female)

Implants

Injections

Pills

Vasectomy and Tubal Ligation

---Infertility---

Low sperm count (caused by drinking and smoking)

Body weight

Blocked oviducts

Treatments include Arificial Insemination, In Vitro fertilization, Gamate Intrafallopian Transfer, Surrogate mothers

F. Sexually Transmitted Diseases

---STD's from Virus---

HIV

Genital Warts (caused by HPV, warts on penis and vaginal opening)

Genital Herpes (herpes simplex virus)

Hepatitis (infects the liver)

Hepatitis A: through oral/anal contact

Hepatitis B: Sexual contact/blood

Hepatitis C: Post transfusion

Hepatitis D and G: Sexually transmitted

Hepatitis E: Contaminated water

---STD's by Bacteria---

Chlamydia

Gonorrhea

Syphilis

II. Development and Aging

A. Fertilization

---Steps of Fertilization---

Several sperm try to fertilize egg by only one will succeed

When sperm touches the egg, the plasma membrane depolarizes so no other sperm can get in

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sperm-egg.jpg)

B. PreEmbryonic and Embryonic Development

---Processes---

Cleavage: Divides

Growth: Grows

Morphegenesis: Shaping

Differentiation: Structure and Function

---Extraembryonic Membranes---

Chorion: Fetal half of placenta

Allantois: umblical blood vessels

Yolk Sac: First site of blood cell formation

Amnoin: Cushion for the embryo

---Stages of Development---

PreEmbryonic (first week, divides as it passes to the uterus)

Embryonic (2nd week-end of 2nd month)

2nd week: Implatation occurs; chorion produces HCG; Gastrulation occurs

3rd week: Nervous system and heart develop

4th and 5th week: Body moves, little limb buds appear, head enlarges

6th-8th week: Can recognize as a human, reflex actions

C. Fetal Development

Blood of mother and fetus never mix

Umbilical Cord is lifelife of fetus

Umbilical arteries carry oxygen poor blood away from fetus

Umbilical veins take oxygen rich blood to fetus

---Events of Fetal Development---

3rd and 4th month: Head is large, bone starts to appear, male or female, fetal heartbeat is loud

5th-7th month: Movement in felt, translucent skin, weighs 3 pounds

8th-9th month: About 7.5 pounds, head down by cervix

---Development of Male and Female Genitals---

Males XY; Females XX

at 6 weeks males and females have same buds but will appear where penis or clitoris will be

at 14 weeks should be able to see if male or female

D. Pregnancy and Birth

Energy level flucuates in mother

The uterus relaxes (progestrone controls this)

Blood volume increases by 40%

Cardiac output increases by 20 to 30%

Vericose veins

---Birth---

Uterus contracts throughout birth

True labor contractions are regular every 15 minutes and last for 40 seconds

Oxytocin stimulates the contractions

Stage 1: Effacement and breaking of the water

Stage 2: Contractions every 1 to 2 minutes lasting 1 minute, baby is delivered

Stage 3: After birth, placenta is delivered

E. Development after Birth

---Hypothesis of Aging---

Genetic basis

Decline in hormonal system

Failure or decline in other systems

---Effects of age on body systems---

Skin: Thinner and less elastic, feels cold

Processing and transporting: Heart shrinks, arteries and more rigid, higher blood pressure

Integration and Coordination: Cognitive skills remain the same, reaction time slowes, decrease in bone density

Reproductive System: Menopause and andropause

Lab Project: Build a Human Limb

2008-07-10T19:29:00.000-07:00

For this lab project we needed to construct a human limb and show the different processes of and the part of cell function. I constructed the lower arm for this project which includes the Ulna, Radius, wrist and elbow joints. I also included a representation of the muscles in the lower arm. We also needed to include action potential and the different elements that go into it.

Here is a picture of the items that I used for this project:

2 large square tubing represents the Ulna and Radius

2 Joints represent the Trochlea and Captilium

2 Hinges represent the Wrist and Elbow Joints

CAT 5 cable represents the Sarcolemma and T Tubles

CAT 5 cable also represents the Myosin Strands

Zip Ties: (white) Acton Strands (black) Calcium

Washer represents the Cell Body

Springs represent the muscles in the arm (Carpal muscle groups)

Electical Wire represents the Axon, Myeline Sheath, and Axon Terminal

Here is a diagram of a Neuron

Here is a diagram of the propagation of an Action potential

The top half of this photo is when the myosin is sliding with the actin. Included in this photo is the cross-bridge for when the myosin obtains the Ca+. The bottoms half is a representation of the Sarcolemma and the T Tubule Membrane.

When these processes happen they all contribute to the action of muscles. Muscles need to have these processes in order to make contraction and movement complete. Action potential is needed because regulates the potassium and sodium ions, which help with movement.

Online Lab: Muscle Function

2008-07-10T18:28:00.000-07:00

This lab is representing how muscle function works when there are different circumstances happening. In the first part we tested the effects of cold weather and muscles. In the second part we were testing to see how fatigue effects the muscles.

1. The three changes that I noticed while doing this experiment were that muscles move slower when cold. They also work slower when they are fatigued. When flexing your muscles, their shape changes.

2. While testing with the cold water experiment (picture to the left is my hand in cold water for 1 minute) the muscles move a lot slower. Before I put my hand in the cold water, I could pump the blood pressure bulb 35 times. When I removed my hand from the water I could only pump it 28 times.

3. While testing for fatigue, the muscles also performed slower. Here are my results for that test:

1. 43

2. 41

3. 37

4. 34

5. 29

6. 25

7. 23

8. 24

9. 20

When testing the cold temperature experiment, the reason that the pumps went down after removing my hand from the water is that cold weather has an effect on muscles. If you think about it like this, when your standing outside in the cold how does your body respond? Usually your heart rate is much slower; therefore, when your cold, the muscles in the body will move slower because of the temperature difference. All processes in the body become slower is very cold climate.

When the body gets fatigued it takes a lot more energy to produce a process. While doing the experiment we were asked not to take breaks so our muscles became fatigued. When you work out you burn more energy (ATP) than you can produce. If you can't produce the energy to support the activity, then you become fatigued.

Online Lab: Leech Neurons

2008-07-08T08:43:00.000-07:00

1. An electrode is the machine that measures the amount of activity in neurons. The device "delivers electric shock" to a patient or specimen to stimulate cells.

2. The leech is used for medical purposes because many people don't think anything when a leech is killed. Leeches also have a high number of neurons and cells for how small of a creature they are.

3. A motor neuron is when the impulses are going away from the central nervous system. A sensory neuron is when the impulses are going to the central nervous system.

4. I believe that the leech does feel pain. In our text book, the definition for pain receptor is "Sensory receptor that is sensitive to chemicals released by damaged tissues or excess stimuli of heat or pressure" Leeches do have sensory receptors and pain in inflicted on the leech, so it does feel pain.

5. I really like this lab because you can use the dye and the UV light to see the neurons more clearly. I also like that you could stimulate the neurons with different objects to see what stimulates them even more.

6. I really liked this lab and I think it is a great representation of what neurons do when they are stimulated. The only thing I didn't like about this lab, was that you couldn't adjust the screen size, which made it hard to see. I wish the images would have been a bit bigger.

Compendium Six

2008-07-08T06:22:00.000-07:00

I. Skeletal System

A. Overview of Skeletal System
B. Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair
C. Bones of the Axial Skeleton
D. Bones of Appendicular Skeleton

I. Muscular System

A. Overview of Muscular System
B. Skeletal Muscle Fiber and Contraction
C. Whole Muscle Contraction
D. Muscle Disorders
E. Homeostasis

I. Skeletal System

A. Overview of Skeletal System

--Functions of the Skeletal System--

Support the body
Protects soft body parts
Produces blood cells
Stores minerals and fats
Permits flexible body movement

---Anatomy of a long bone---

Shaft is diaphysis
End of bond in epiphysis-large spongy bone with red bone marrow. Surrounded with articular cartilage
Bone

1. Compact

2. Spongy

3. Red Bone Marrow

Cartilage

1. More flexible but not as strong as bone

2. No nerves; no blood vessels

3. Hyaline Cartilage

4. Fibrocartilage

5. Elastic Cartilage

Fibrous Connective Tissue

1. Make up ligaments

B. Bone Growth, Remodeling, and Repair

Osteoblasts- bone forming cells
Osteocytes- maintain structure of bone
Osteoclasts- bone absorbing cells
Bone Development

1. Ossification- formation of bones

2. Intermembrous Ossification

Develope between sheets of fibrous tissue
Connective tissue cells become osteoblasts
Trabeculae of spongy bone and spongy bone remains inside

Endochodral Ossification

1. Bone replaces cartilage

2. The cartilage model

3. The bone collar

4. The primary ossification center

5. The medullary cavity and secondary ossification site

6. The epipseal plate

7. The final size of the bone (18 females)(20 males)

Bone Remodeling

1. 18% of bone is modeled in a year

2. Allows the body to regulate calcium

3. PTH- hormone

4. Calcitonin- opposite hormone of PTH

Bone Repair

1. Hemotoma

2. Fibrocartilage

3. Bony Callus

4. Remodeling

C. Bone of the Axial Skeleton

Skull

The Bones of the Skull

The cranium protects the brain

Frontal- Forehead

Parietal- Sides

Occipital- base of the skull

Temporal- ears

Sphenoid- floor of the cranium

Ethmoid- forms orbits and nasal structure

Facial Bones

Mandible- lower jaw

Maxillae- upper jaw

Zygomatic- cheek bone

Nasal Bones- bridge of nose

Hyoid Bone

Attached to temporal bones by muscle ligaments and to the larynx by membrane

Associated with swallowing

Vertebral Column

33 vertebra

4 curvatures

spinal cord passes through it

mid line of the back

named according to location

Cervical vertebra- neck

Thoracic- ribs

Lumbar- lower back

Sacral- sacrum

Rib Cage

Thoracic cage

12 pairs of bones

7 pairs (upper) "true"ribs

3 pairs (lower) "false" ribs

2 pairs (bottom) "floating" ribs

Sternum protects the heart and lungs

Manubrium, Body, and Xiphoid

D. Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral Girdle and Upper limb

Clavical- top of thorax

Scapula- visible bone in the back

Glenoid cavity

Rotator Cuff

Humerus- upper bone in arm

Radium- outer part of lower arm

Ulna- inside part of lower arm

Carpal bones (metacarpals and phalanges)

Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Pelvis- pelvic girdle, sacrum, coccyx

Coxal- ilium, ischium, pubis

Acetabulium- hip socket

Femur- upper bone in leg

Tibia- inner lower leg bone

Fibia- outer lower leg bone

Patella- knee cap

Tarsal bone (metacarpal and phalanges)

II. Muscular System

A. Overview of the Muscular System

Types of Muscles

Smooth Muscles- located in walls of hallow internal organs

Cardiac Muscles- Forms heart wall

Skeletal Muscles

Functions of Skeletal Muscles

Support the body

Makes bones move

Maintain body temp

Assist with movement in cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels

Helps protect internal organs and stabilize joints

Skeletal Muscles of the Body

When muscle contracts it pulls tendons and creates movement

Usually functions in groups

Muscles contract, they shorten

Can only pull, not push

Names and actions of Skeletal Muscles

Named after several factors

Size

Shape

Location

Direction of muscle fibers

Attachment

Number of attachments

Action

B. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Contration

Muscle fibers and how they slide

Sarcolemma- plasma membrane

Carcoplasm- cytoplasma

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum- ER

Myofibrals- run the length of the muscle

Thick Filaments

Thin Filaments

Sliding Filaments

Control muscularfiber contraction uses the motor neurons

C. Whole Muscle Contraction

Muscles have motor units (all stimulated at same time)
Energy from muscle contraction

2 energy sources are stored in muscle

2 energy sources are acquired from blood

Glucose and fatty acids

Store limited amounts of ATP

CP pathway

Fermentation

Cellular respiration

Fast Twitch and Slow Twitch

Fast Twitch (Anaerobic, explosion of energy)

Slow Twitch (Long distance running, more mitochondria)

D. Muscle Disorders

Spasms
Cramps
Strain
Sprain

E. Homeostasis

Both systems produce movement
Both systems protect body parts
Bones store and release calcium
Blood cells produce in bone
Muscle maintains body temp

Compendium Five

2008-07-07T07:01:00.000-07:00

I. Nervous System

A. Overview of the Nervous System
B. The Central Nervous System
C. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions
D. The Peripheral Nervous System
E. Drug Abuse

II. Senses

A. Sensory Receptors and Sensations
B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors
C. Senses of Taste and Smell
D. Sense of Vision
E. Sense of Hearing
F. Sense of Equilibrium

I. The Nervous System

A. Overview of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) (Brain and Spinal Cord)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) (Nerves)

3 Functions

1. Sensory receptors generate nerve impulses that travel through CNS and PNS

2. CNS performs integration

3. CNS generates motor output

Nervous Tissue

Neurons (cell transmit nerve impulses)

Neuraoglia (support and nourish)

Neuron Structure

---3 types of neurons---

1. Sensory Neurons

2. Sensory Receptors

3. Interneurons

---Vary in appearances: 3 common parts---

1. Cell Body (nucleus)

2. Dendrites (receive signals)

3. Axon (conducts nerve impulses)

Myelin Sheath

Cover and protect axons

Node of Ranvier- breaks in axons

Only present on long axons

Nerve Impulse

Resting Potential (not conducting impulse, sodium and potassium pump)

Action Potential (Change in polarity, Sodium gates (depolarization), Potassium Gates (re polarization)

Propagation of an Action Potential

Saltatory Conduction

MS and Leukodystrophies

Lorenzo's oil

Synapse

Events that occur:

1. Nerve impulse reach axon terminal

2. Calcium enters terminal

3. Neurotransmitter released and diffuse

There are 100 known Neurotransmitter molecules known

Synaptic Integration: summing up of signals

B. The Central Nervous System

The Spinal Cord

---Structure of Spinal Cord---

Central Canal- cerebrospinal fluid

Gray Matter- H Shaped

White Matter- Inside the gray matter

---Functions---

Communication from the brain to the nerves

Reflex actions

The Brain

4 Ventricles

---Cerebrum---

telencephalon

largest portion of the brain

2 halves

longitudinal fissure separates the hemispheres

Frontal Lobe- Forehead

Parietal Lobe- Dorsal to the frontal

Occipital Lobe- Dorsal to parietal

Temporal Lobe- Temple and ear

Cerebral Cortex is the out layer of the brain

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Brainlobes.svg)

---Diencephalon---

hypothalamus and the thalamus

---Cerebellum---

under the occipital region

2 portions- white matter

receives sensory input (eyes, ears, joints, muscles)

motor output from cerebral cortex

sends motor impulses to skeletal muscles

---Brain Stem---

Midbrain- Relay station

the Pons- Bundles of axons

Medulla Oblongata

C. The Limbic System and Higher Mental Functions

The Limbic System

Primitive emotions and higher mental functions

Amygdala- emotion and sense of fear

Hippocampus- learning and memory

Higher Mental Functions

---Memory---

Short term memory

Long term memory

Sematic Memory (numbers and words)

Episodic Memory (persons, events,)

Skill Memory

---Language and Speech---

Depends mostly on Sematic Memory

D. The Peripheral Nervous System

nerves are composed of axons

12 pairs of cranial nerves (sensory and motor)

---Somatic System---

Skin, skeletal muscles, tendons

Reflexes (automatic response to stimulus)

---Autonomic System---

Regulates activity of cardiac and smooth muscles

---Both Systems---

1. Function automatically and involuntary

2. Innervate all internal organs

3. 2 neurons and 1 ganglia

Produce sympathetic division and Parasympathetic Division

E. Drug Abuse

Alcohol (liver and brain; depressant; memory loss)
Nicotine (stimulant; increase heart rate and blood pressure)
Cocaine (stimulant; cardiac and respiratory arrest)
Methamphetamine (stimulant; paranoia, hallucinations)
Heroin (depressant; injected, snorted or inhaled)

II. Senses

A. Sensory Receptors and Sensations

Dendrites
Extereceptors (outside of body)
Intereceptors (inside the body)
Types of sensory receptors

Chemoreceptors--Chemicals

Pain Receptors

Photoreceptors--Light Energy

Mechanoreceptors--Mechanical

Thermoreceptors--Changes in Temperature

Sensations occurs when sensory receptors initiate the nerve impulses and then they integrate

B. Proprioceptors and Cutaneous Receptors

Proprioceptors (equilibrium, posture, and muscle tone)

Cutaneous Receptors (dermis; touch, pressure, pain; Meissner Corpuscles; Merkel Disks, and root of hair)
Pain Receptors (nociceptors)

C. Senses of Smell and Taste

Sense of taste

3000 Taste buds

4 Primary tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salty)

The Brain takes the average of tastes to get an average

Sense of smell

80-90 % of taste is a result of smell

Olfactory Cells

D. Sense of Vision

Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye

2.5 cm in diameter

sclera-white part of eye

cornea- "windows the eye"

choroid- absorbs stray light rays

iris- regulates the size of pupil

pupil- center of the iris which light enters

ciliary body- controls the shape of lens for near or far vision

lens-refracts and focus light rays

retina-contains rods (dark) and cones (bright light)

E. Sense of Hearing

Anatomy and Physiology of the ear

Outer ear (pinna and auditory canal)

Middle Ear (tympanic membrane; oval and round window; malleus, incus, and stapes; auditory tube)

Outer Ear (semicircular canals, vestibule, cochlea)

Waves enter the auditory canal, the malleus moves back and forth, passed to the incus, when stapes strikes the membrane the waves move

E. Sense of Equilibrium

Rotational Equilibrium

Gravitational Equilibrium

Unit II Evaluation

2008-06-26T22:32:00.000-07:00

Self and Unit Evaluation

1. I’m really proud of the second compendium that I wrote. I think I’m finally starting to get them down! I’m also proud of both labs that I did. I spent a good amount of time on them and I think they came out well. I’m also proud of my lab write up. I had fun with this one, although I think my husband differs ☺

2. I think I could have used some help with the first compendium that I wrote but I think after the second one I wrote I’m a little more confident in it. I think my ethical essay could have used some improvement. I liked the topic but I just couldn’t get the right words out!

3. I think I should get a low A. I really liked all these topics and I think I did a better job this time around.

4. I think I could spend a little more time on some of the projects. I don’t think I spent as much time this time around

1. I really felt engaged when I was doing to food exercise. It really put into perspective what I ate and how it affected my daily intakes.

2. I think I felt distanced from this unit when it came down to the ethical issue.

3. The directions for the lab write up were very clear. They also helped me while I was doing to lab write up and the lab itself.

4. I don’t think anything really confused me this time!

5. Like I stated in question 1, I was really surprised with the food lab. I think it’s crazy that people eat all the time and don’t realize what they are consuming. I know I could benefit using that more often!

Unit II Lab Project

2008-06-26T21:07:00.000-07:00

During this lab, I used the Wii Fit to help calculate blood pressure, respiratory rate, and pulse. When a person works out, their body needs to produce enough oxygen to replenish the body. When we test blood pressure you measure the systolic rate (“defined as the peak pressure in the arteries”). (www.wikipedia.com) We also test the diastolic rate “arterial pressure is the lowest pressure (at the resting phase of the cardiac cycle”. (www.wikipedia.com) We also tested the pulse rate, the “throbbing of their arteries as an effect of the heart beat”. (www.wikipedia.com) Finding the respiratory rate, you just calculate the number of respiration's in 30 seconds and times it by 2.

My hypothesis for this experiment is that when a person works out, I believe their blood pressure, respiration's, and pulse are going to go up. In the table below, I show what my hypothesis is for each activity.

In this chart I'm showing what my hypothesis for each activity will be. As you can see, I predict that as the activities intensify, the blood pressure, pulse rate and respiration rate will go up

This is a picture of the watch that we used for the respiration rates and the electronic blood pressure monitor. All measurements were taken immediately after each activity. There was no resting period between activity and time of measurement.

This is a picture of the Wii Fit game. If you aren't familiar with Wii fit, it's an interactive video game that is intended for physical fitness and weight loss.

This is a picture of my husband watching tv (The Deadliest Catch on the Discovery Channel) to get the baseline measurements. Thankfully, my wonderful husband did all the activities for me, as I would have probably died! ☺

Here is a picture of my husband doing Wii Fit Ski Jump. This exercise is designed to help improve balance and requires very little energy and movement.

My husband is doing Wii Fit Push-Ups (10 push ups at a time.) This exercise is designed for upper body strength and requires quite a bit of exercise and movement. It definitely gets your blood moving.

This is the Wii Fit Short Run. Basically its 3 minutes of running or jogging. Running is the best way to get your blood pumping and requires a ton of exercise and energy.

In all of these bar graphs, I know it is hard to read and I'm sorry! But the Purple bar is the Baseline rate, the red bar is the Wii Fit Ski, the yellow bar is the Wii Fit Push-ups, and the aqua color bar is the Wii Fit Short Run...I tried to make them bigger but it didn't work.

My hypothesis was correct for the most part. From the baseline measurement the averages were pulse was 67.6, respiration was 16.4 and blood pressure was 107.4/63.6. As we went on with the other activities all the variables increased, but very slightly, they didn't increase that much, or at least as much as I thought. In the Wii Fit Short run the averages were pulse 86, Respiration 22, and blood pressure 141.6/64.6. I thought that during this whole process that the averages would have been more defined and not close together.

The problems that came up with our lab is that for the short run, it doesn’t pace you at all. It just give you 3 minutes to run, but no pace meter. Without the pace meter we couldn’t tell if my husband was running at the same speed or if he was slower or faster than the previous run. I also think it would be more accurate if you were doing the blood pressure testing while exercising. I would have my husband sit down to take the blood pressure, and you could tell he was calming down after a minute or so of sitting. I know it would be pretty hard to do that, but I think it would be a little more accurate.

When people exercise their blood pressure, pulse rate, and respiratory rate increase slightly. Depending on how much work your activity is, the differences will vary. It makes complete sense that the more you work out the more your heart has to pump in order to get more oxygen to the body. The more your heart pumps, the faster you pulse rate will be. When you work out, the blood enters your lungs to get more oxygen, in which your respiratory rate will go up. The blood pressure will go up because your heart is working very hard to produce new blood to get circulated.

Ethical Essay Two

2008-06-26T14:53:00.000-07:00

The issue that I read for this ethical essay is the essay about the Slow Food. It is basically saying that we need to realize where our food comes from and that we should all come together and should start “connecting producers and co-producers, coming together on the farm, in the market, and at the table—to create and enjoy food that is good, clean and fair.” (From the article) We also need to start slowing down and make food pretty much from scratch.

It would be great to know where your food came from, instead of food being loaded onto a truck and delivered to a grocery store. We have no idea where our food comes from and if it is healthy enough to eat. In the past couple of weeks, there was a scare about salmonella in tomatoes. If we knew where our food came from, and who produces them and what their habits are, we shouldn’t have to worry about that. There are many issues with today’s food that we need to start addressing.

Although, it would be nice to know where our food came from, I don’t think our world today really cares. With the way the world is, it’s too fast paced and we don’t even get a chance to relax at all, let alone worry about our food. I know I’m guilty of this, as my husband and I work too much and have to in order to keep up with bills and such. We just don’t have time to worry about it. I think many people are having that issue because the economy is not what it used to be.

Both of these viewpoints are valid. As much as we would all love to spend more time with our families and make our own food, we just don’t have time anymore. The world just isn’t what it used to be. I don’t see this changing at all in the future. If anything, I think it may get a little worse. Definitely now in time, with the economy the way its been, there is no way people can do the things they want and still make ends meet.

Food Nutrition Lab

2008-06-24T14:34:00.001-07:00

Here is my food nutrition lab...sorry I couldn't get it zoomed in!!

1. I think my diet is okay...I seem to have a pretty high salt intake though. My calories fall right around 1700, but my cholesterol is very high. But, I think overall it's an okay diet because I'm not exceeding 2000 calories but it does need some improvement on the salt and cholesterol.

2. I think what I would change about my diet is that I wouldn't drink diet soda and I would drink milk. I have never been one to drink milk, but I guess I should start. I would probably also eat more fruit, I only had one serving of fruit. I ate a few servings of Veggies, so I don't think I would add anymore. And no more ice cream :(

3. I do find this helpful because I didn't really realize that my salt intake was high. I also thought that I consumed more calories that I actually did. I didn't realize how much cholesterol I eat either, and I really need to watch on that. This tracking tool would probably help out with obesity trends because I don't think that many people realize how much they are ingesting.

Online Lab: Blood Pressure

2008-06-23T16:33:00.000-07:00

1. State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

There are many different factors that go into blood pressure readings. In this lab there were 4 other variables other than male/female and age differences. Family History, High Salt Diet, No Exercise, and Alcohol consumption were those variables. There is also the weight and height factor. There are many other variables that go into blood pressure readings, but this gives you a good idea of what affects what.

2. Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

The lower the blood pressure the more we could assume it is a younger female.

3. How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?

There are different age categories and they are divided between male and female. We will test 10 people in each category to get find an average. Such as. Male ages 11-17, 18-24,25-34, 35-44, 45-54. Females are broken up into the same age categories. We will test their blood pressures all at the same time so there isn't a discrepancy. The data that will be recorded are the individuals’ blood pressures along with height, weight, age, family history, if they have high salt diet, exercise or no exercise, and if they consume alcohol.

4. Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

In the graph and the table you can see that females generally have lower blood pressures that males do. In the graph, the male systolic is represented by the pink line, and the diastolic is represented by the blue line. The female systolic is represented by the green line and the diastolic is represent by the orange line. In the table, you can see all the averages of the age/gender groups. The older people get the higher their blood pressures are. It seems that most of the males I tested had 2 or 3 different variables that contributed to their high blood pressures. Some were overweight (which we could probably tie to little or no exercise), some had high salt diets, and family history. The patterns that I observed from doing this exercise, family history has a lot to do with the high blood pressure of people.

5. Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

The results from doing this test supported my hypothesis. Females generally have a lower blood pressure than males, and the younger people are, the lower their blood pressures are. The one interesting aspect of this experiment that I found was the average of females 11-17 was a little higher than that of 18-24(refer to the table). Overall though, females have lower blood pressure than males.

6. During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

When I researched the individuals who had high blood pressure, they usually had more than one factor that contributed to their hypertension. Most of them had a higher weight than they should have. I also noticed that most of them didn’t exercise or had a high salt diet. Both of those factors contribute highly to hypertension.

7. List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

There were quite a bit of people who had hypertension that had family history of hypertension. Weight, I think has a pretty big impact on hypertension. When I tested one male who was 47...he had no family history, he exercised, had a regular diet and was not overweight, so something else must contribute to his high blood pressure.

8. What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

I think obesity has a huge impact on high blood pressure, if a person is not exercising and has a horrible diet; they have a pretty high chance of having high blood pressure. I think obesity alone could have an impact on high blood pressure. Usually, people who are obese do not exercise on a regular basis therefore they aren't able to burn what they eat. If a person who is obese could exercise, then I would imagine their chance of high blood pressure could come down.

Compendium Four: Digestive System and Nutrition

2008-06-20T15:02:00.000-07:00

I. Digestive System and Nutrition
A. Overview of Digestion
B. First part of the Digestive System
C. The Stomach and Small Intestine
D. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
E. The Large Intestine and Defecation
F. Nutrition and Weight Control.

I. Digestive System and Nutrition

A. Overview of Digestion

1. This diagram is the GI tract and the organs that are associated digestion.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg)

2. Digestion has 5 different processes involved

Ingestion- When food is processed through the mouth.
Digestion- When food is chewed up into small pieces. Digestive enzymes are involved in this process.
Movement- The movement of food through the GI tract
Absorption- When nutrients from food enter the blood system

Elimination- The process of defecation through the anus

3. The GI tract has 4 different layers

First layer is Mucosa (Produces mucous)
Second layer is submucosa (carry nutrients absorbed by mucosa)
Third layer is muscularis (helps with movement)
Fourth layer is serosa (secretes fluid)

B. First part of the Digestive Tract

1. The Mouth

The first part of digestion starts here with the ingestion of food.
3 pairs of salivary gland that help with movement of food (saliva)
Teeth are responsible for grinding the food into small pieces (mechanical digestion)
The tongue is responsible for mixing food with saliva for easy movement.

2. The Pharynx and Esophagus

Mouth and nasal passages make up pharynx
Swallowing is said to be a reflex once food is pushed back into pharynx
Food usually enters the esophagus, and the esophagus is only there to transport food, no chemical digestion occurs.

People do not breathe when they eat because the soft palate closes off nasal passage and the trachea moves up to close up the glottis

C. The Stomach and Small Intestine

1. The Stomach

Stores food, starts digestion, controls the movement to small intestine
do not absorb nutrients

Contains gastric glands which produce gastric juice, which break down food (pepsin is an enzyme that controls digestion of proteins)

Stomach empties in 2 to 6 hours

(http://www.besthealth.com/besthealth/bodyguide/reftext/html/dige_sys_fin.html)

2. Small Intestine

18ft in length
Has the enzymes to digest food
Duodenum is the first 25cm of small intestine and supports the transfer of the enzymes from the pancreas

The walls absorb molecules
Mucosa of the small intestines have villi ("fingerlike projections")

(http://www.besthealth.com/besthealth/bodyguide/reftext/html/dige_sys_fin.html)

D. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions

1. Three Accessory Organs

Pancreas- (Pancreatic amylase- digests starch, Trypsin- digests proteins, Lipase-digests fats)----also controls blood glucose by producing insulin
Liver- Receives and filters blood . Removes any toxins from the blood. Is a storage organ. Produces bile
Gallbladder- Bile is stored here

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Digestive_system_showing_bile_duct.png)

2. Regulation of Digestive Secretions

Digestive juices are controlled by nervous system and digestive hormones
When you smell food it initiates the production of gastric secretion.

E. The Large Intestine and Defecation

1. Large Intestine

Absorbs water (helps with hydration)
No production of enzymes or absorption of nutrients
Forms feces (3/4 water and 1/4 solids)
Defecation is getting rid of feces. Feces leave the intestines, then gather in the rectum until defecation
Defecation helps maintain homeostasis

F. Nutrition and Weight Control

1. How obesity is defined....BMI Scale

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Body_mass_index_chart.svg)

Sometimes the BMI chart is not accurate. It does not take into factor muscle weight.

B. Classes of nutrients

Carbohydrates- Body needs them to convert fat into glucose

Proteins- Digested into amino acids...are not stored in the body..needed everyday

Lipids- Saturated fats, Unsaturated fats, trans-fatty acids, and Omega-3

Minerals- Iron, Calcium, Magnesium, and zinc are examples.

Vitamins- Needed for metabolic purposes, 13 different vitamins

C. How to plan a nutritious meal

eat variety of foods from food groups

eat more fruits, veggies, whole grains, and milk

eat less saturated fats or trans fats

Make sure you exercise

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:MyPyramid1.png)

Compendium Three

2008-06-18T09:42:00.000-07:00

I. Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood vessels

A. Overview
B. Types of blood vessels
C. Heart is a double pump

D. Features of cardiovascular system
E. Two cardiovascular pathways
F. Exchange of capillaries
G. Cardiovascular disorders

II. Cardiovascular System: Blood
A. Overview
B. Red blood cells and transport of oxygen
C. White blood cells and defense against disease
D. Platelets and blood clotting
E. Blood typing and transfusions
F. Homeostasis

III. Lymphatic System and Immunity
A. Microbes, Pathogens, and You
B. The lymphatic system
C. Non-specific defenses
D. Specific defenses
E. Acquired immunity

IV. AIDS supplement
A. Origin and Prevalence of HIV
B. Phases of HIV
C. HIV structure and Life cycle

I. Heart and Blood vessels

A. Overview

1. Actual purpose of circulation of blood is to service the cells

2. Blood needs to be "refreshed" in lungs, intestines, and kidneys

a. purified in kidneys

b. oxygenate in the lungs

c. nutrients added in the intestines

3. The lymphatic vessels transport excess fluid to the cardiovascular system

B. Types of blood vessels

1. The arteries (from the heart)

2. The capillaries (exchange)

3. The Veins (to the heart)

4. 70% of blood are in the veins

C. The heart is a double pump

1. Myocardium: serviced by coronary artery and cardiac vein

2. Pericardium is a sac that surrounds the heart

3. Heart has 4 chambers

a. right and left atrium

b. right and left ventricle

4. AV valve on right side has 3 flaps; AV valve on left side has 2 flaps

5. Passage of the blood:

http://www.childrensheartinstitute.org/educate/heartwrk/bloodflw.htm

6. Oxygen deprived cells never mix with cell that have rich oxygen

7. Left side of heart is stronger at pumping

8. Systole, working phase; Diastole, resting phase

9. "lup" is when increase in blood pressure; "dup" when ventricles are relaxed

10. SA node starts the heart beat which causes atria to contract. SA node is called pacemaker

11. Controlled by medulla oblongata (in the brain) Epinephrine and nor epinephrine stimulate the heart

D. Features of the Cardiovascular System

1. The pulse rate is the same as the heart rate

2. Blood pressure is determined by systolic pressure(highest number) and diastolic pressure (lowest number).

3. Hypertension is the condition in which the blood pressure is high

(http://www.lifemana.com/blood-pressure-chart.html)

E. Two Cardiovascular Pathways

1. The Pulmonary Circuit: The exchange of gases

a. Blood passes through lungs and because oxygenated

2. The Systemic Circuit: Exchanges with tissue fluid

a. Provides blood to the organs and tissues through arteries and veins

b. the coronary artery provides the blood for the heart itself

F. Exchange at the Capillaries

1. Blood pressure and osmotic pressure help with movement

2. oxygen and nutrients go outside of capillaries while carbon dioxide and waste go in

(http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2001_saladin/folder_structure/tr/m3/s10/index.htm)

G. Cardiovascular disorders

1. high blood pressure

2. Stroke, heart attack, and aneurysm

II. Cardiovascular System: Blood

A . Overview

1. Delivers oxygen from lungs and nutrients from digestive tract

2. Defends against disease

3. Regulates body temperature

4. Formed elements

a. Contains red blood cells, white blood cells, and cell fragments

5. Plasma

a. 91% water

b. carries substance into blood

B. Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen

1. No nucleus, but contains copies of hemoglobin

2. Hemoglobin is what carries the O2

3. Help with transport of CO2

4. Produced in bone marrow

C. White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease

1. Have nucleus and no hemoglobin

2. Fight infection (part of immune system)

3. Types of white blood cells

a. Granular Leukocytes

Neurtrophils are first to go to a virus

Eosinophils are present for a parasitic worm or allergic reaction

Basophils are associated with allergic reactions

b. Agranular Leukocytes

lymphocytes: B and T cells produce antibodies

Monocytes: Serve as "vacuum cleaner"

D. Platelets and Blood Clotting

1. When skin is broken, bleeding starts to occur. Platelet seals the punctured sight.

(http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec14/ch173/ch173a.html)

E. Blood Typing and Transfusions

1. ABO blood typing

a. Type A: has anti-b antibodies

b. Type B: has anti-a antibodies

c. Type O: has both antibodies (universal donor)

F. Homeostasis

1. All body systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

2. Cardiovascular system helps out with homeostasis "Heart pumps blood. Blood vessels transport oxygen and nutrients to cells of all the organs and transports wastes away from them. The blood clots to prevent blood loss. The cardiovascular system also specifically helps the other systems as mentioned"

III. Lymphatic System and Immunity

A. Microbes, Pathogens, and You

1. Pathogens are Bactria and viruses.

2. Three defense mechinisms

a. Barriers to entry

b. First responders

c. Specific defenses

3. 3 different kinds of bacteria

a. bacillus- rod shape

b. coccus-sphereical shape

c. spirillum-curved

d. Growth of bacteria causes disease

4. Viruses do not contain cells

a. colds, flus, measles, chicken pox, AIDS

b. Do not need to contain of DNA

5. Prions- degenerative disease

a. mad cow disease

b. change their shape

B. The Lymphatic System

1. Vessels for one way system (capillaries, vessels, and ducts)

2. Fluid= lymph

3. Primary organs:

a. red bone marrow produces all types of blood cells

b. thymus gland create mature T cells

4. Secondary Organs:

a. Spleen filters the blood

b. Lymph nodes fight infection

C. Nonspecific Defenses

1. Barriers to entry

a. skin and mucous membrane

b. chemical barriers

c. resident bacteria

2. Inflammatory response

a. Second line of defense

b. sends out neutrophils and macrophanges to kill

c. if they need help they can call in cytokines

d. interferons are proteins that warn nonifected cells that there is a virus

D. Specific Defenses

1. B Cells bind to BCR then clone themselves, are produced and mature in bone marrow, create memory b cells and plasma cells

2. Antibodies are Y shaped. They attract white cells to invade.

a. IgG- Bind to pathogens and toxins

b. IgM- show up first for defense

c. IgA- body decretions

d. IgD- antigen receptors for immature b cells

e. IgE- prevention of parasitic worms

3. T cells recognize the antigen with assistance from APC

a. like b cells, they also clone

b. Cytotoxin T Cell kill the virus or bacteria

c. Helper T cells do not fight directly but produce cytokines (chemicals)

E. Aquired Immunity

1. Active Immunity

a. Immunizations

2. Passive Immunity

a. antibiotic therapy after a person has contracted disease

b. temporary

IV. AIDS Supplement

A. Origin of and Prevalence of HIV

1. HIV can be traced back to 1959

2. First case was 15 yr. old male from Missouri in 1969

3. Prevalence of HIV

a. 36.3 million adults and 2.3 million children is 2005

b. 24 million in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia (64% of all HIV)

c. 1.3 million people are infected in the US

B. Phases of HIV Infection

1. Catagory A: Acute Phase

a. symptoms aren't detected yet, infectious, 500 cells per mm

b. some people experience flu like symptoms

c. take about 25 days to detect

2. Catagory B: Chronic Phase

a. 200 cells per mm

b. one or more symptoms

3. Catagory C: AIDS

a. below 200 cells per mm

b. Death usually occurs 2 to 4 years

C. HIV Structure and Life Cycle

1. 2 single strands of RNA

2. 3 important enzymes (Reverse transcriptase, Integrase, and Protease)

3. HIV Life cycle

Attachment, Fusion, Entry, Reverse Transcription, Integration, Biosynthesis and cleavage, Assembly, and Budding

4. Infection can spread from vaginal or rectal intercourse, oral sex, needle sharing, birth, breastmilk, and blood.

5. Testing for HIV can begin within 2 to 8 weeks but it can also take up to 6 months.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HIV_gross_cycle_only.png)

Self and Unit evaluation

2008-06-11T19:56:00.000-07:00

1. I would say the three aspects of the assignments for this unit are: My lab report for the Microscope lab. The lab report for the punnet square and dragon lab. I really liked the assignment for Building a Cell.

2. I could have used major improvement on the compendiums. For the first one I was completely lost in thought, and the second one was a little better, although I was still lost in though.

3. I believe my overall grade should be a low A high B. I understand the unit, I was just having problems getting all my ideas out on the compendiums.

4. I'm definitely going to improve on my compendiums. I believe I can develop a better system for it.

Regarding the Unit:

1. I felt really engaged in the unit when we were reading about Cancer and Genetics. I am really interested in Cancer, probably because I'm scared of it. Genetics has always interested me.

2. I was a little distance with work when it came to the Mitosis and Meiosis. I understand it, I just really had a hard time keeping the information.

3. What was helpful to me were the power point slides that Larry Frolich completed for us. I used those tremendously!

4. I was a little confused with the instructions for the Build a Cell project. I was confused with the part for Mitosis, Chromosomes, and the DNA.

5. I was most surprised with the Ethical Issues Essay. When I was reading the articles about cloning, it really opened up my eyes about how cloning could really be a good thing. I'm definitely going to have to research that a little more.

Lab Project 1: Building a cell

2008-06-11T18:59:00.000-07:00

This project has helped me out in understanding cells and how they go through mitosis, replication, and translation. This lab was completely hands on! Constructing the cell structure was the easiest part of this lab. Trying to figure out how to represent DNA replication, translation, and mitosis was a difficult task. When trying to show mitosis and the translation of DNA helped me understand the process a little easier and gave me more understanding.

While working on this project, here are the items that I used....

Cell plasma: Black licorice

Nucleus: Purple Frosting

Nucleolus: Rice Cake

Nuclear Membrane: Red Licorice

Rough ER: Walnuts

Smooth ER: Blue M&M's

Golgi Aparatus: Twizzlers Pull and Peels

Lysosomes: Yellow Peanut M&M's

Vesicles: Orange Peanut M&M's

Mitchodria: Raspberries

Cilia: Pink Fish Sprinkles

Chromosomes: Black and Red licorice

DNA: Red and Green Sour Candy Strings

Base for DNA: White, Gray, Black, and Blue Fish Sprinkles

Ribosome: Pink Sprinkles

Polypeptides: Turtles

This is the first picture after the cell structure was constructed. This was quite a messy process as my almost 2 year old decided that he likes just about everything in this cell structure :) I used the book model as a reference for all the cell structures.

Here is a picture of the nucleus and chromosomes waiting to get duplicated. The homologous chromosomes come together and line up next to each other, before they come together to form a sister chromatides.

This is a picture representing the sister chromotides. This is part of Mitosis II. They are joined in the center called centromere.

This was the best way that I could represent the nucleus dividing. As you can see, the chromosomes go to the opposite poles when the nucleous divides.

This picture is representing the DNA structure. As you can see, it resembles a ladder. As you can also see, my camera was having some issues :)

This picture is representing transcription to mRNA.

This is when the mRNA is taken to the ribosome to get translated.

Ethical Essay 1

2008-06-11T08:28:00.000-07:00

The article that I read for this assignment is Cloning.

I. Cloning (Saving Endangered animals vs. not have perfection for saving endangered animals)

II. With cloning, this article said that saving endangered animals could be an option. I never really thought about it, but it really could happen. If is possible to create an embryo outside of the womb, and be able to implant into a surrogate mother, than cloning should be able to save endangered animals. The world would never have to worry about having endangered animals which lead to extinction.

III. Although it would be great to save every endangered animal, cloning comes with risks. The cost of cloning is very expensive and it take so much time. There is so much that goes into cloning, and sometimes it doesn't work out. Many of the offspring that are produced from cloning develop a low immunity, which means they can't fight off infection very easily so death comes early in life. Many of the clones that are produced are larger that natural offspring which could lead to some medical problems. Many of them don't live long so they can't report the aging process because they can't get them to live long enough.

IV. Although it would really exciting to see cloning of endangered animals, there is much to be done in order to get it done right. Cloning needs to be just as similar to those that are natural. The knowledge for cloning is there, it just needs a little more perfection. When trying to save endangered animals and they keep dying at early ages, what's the point?

V. In the future I believe that this will be possible. I think that cloning will get perfected in a way that we can help save the endangered animals. I think cloning can be a wonderful thing, although right now it still have a couple errors. If scientists just keep exploring what the difference between the clone and the natural they will be able to come up with a solution and make it possible.

Lab 2: Genetics

2008-06-10T14:07:00.000-07:00

Here shown is the fly Punnett Square lab. In scenario 5 it asks us to make a cross of

1. a heterozygous,long wing fly

2. a heterozygous, long wing fly

In the Punnett square you can see that the probability of a long winged fly is 75%.

Here is the Dragon lab. In this lab you had to take the first dragon, which happens to be blue, with horns, without scales, with wings, no legs, ect....The second dragon was completely different and you had to change all the genotypes to try to make him identical to the first one.

Genetics are what makes up human beings. When a man and a women produce children, that child is made up of genetics from the parents. Each parent contributes certain features of a child. This could be consisted of (blond/brown/black hair, brown/blue/green eyes, light/dark skin...and so on). You could also look at the fly lab and see that when the two parents decided to have children, what the probability of having a long winged fly would be.

There are a couple terms that were discussed in this lab:

Genotype: They are the genes of an individual cell. They are represented by two letters. (AA) (Aa) (aa) The Genotypes in the fly lab include (LL)(Ll)(ll). For the dragon lab it included (Hh) (Ss)(Ww) and so on.

Phenotype: These are what the genes are representing. Examples include (blond hair, blue eyes, dark skin) In the dragon lab (scales, fire, legs, wings, horns, ect..) In the fly lab it included black or grey body, long or short wings.

Allele: These are the alternative for genes. These are what affect the genes.

Cross: The Punnett square is an example of this. These are what the parent's give to their children. Cross over.

Dominant: These are what masks the expression in the allele. They are represented by two uppercase letters (AA) They are heterozygous

Recessive: These are masked by the dominant genes. They are represented by two lower case letters (aa). They are homozygous

When talking about genetics it may get overwhelming just thinking about it. Using the Punnett Square is an easy way to get a visual representation of what genetics are all about and how they are contributed. It is interesting to try to figure out how genetics work. When I look at my son it's easy for me to picture. If you ever see my son, you'll see that he has some of my features (blond hair, blue eyes, pale skin) and he has some of my husbands features as well (blond hair, pale skin, and height). It is also interesting to see how much he looks like my family members and my in-laws.

I found a great website that has great examples of how to work out the Punnett Square.

http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/geneprob.htm

Lab 1: Microscope Lab

2008-06-10T10:45:00.000-07:00

(This image is a cheek cell at 4x)

When working in biology, especially microbiology, the microscope in an everyday tool. This lab shows us how to use a microscope and how to perfect our skills so we can achieve the goals that we need. We use a microscope to amplify or magnify microscopic organisms to see what they consist of and what their functions are.

There are different parts of a microscope:

Stage: The stage is the rectangular, flat piece that the slide is placed on. There are clips that are attached to the stage to secure the slide. There are two knobs that are associated with the stage. They move the stage up and down and left to right.

Focus knobs: There are two focus knobs. The bigger knob, or coarse knob, moves the stage quickly. The smaller knob, fine knob, moves the stage more slowly and is more for smaller adjustments.

Iris: Is what helps with the transparency of the specimen. It is located under the stage.

Oculars: These are what we look through. You can move them to adjust to your eyes. If you don't adjust them correctly, you will see double so make sure you only see one image.

Objectives: These are what magnifies the images. On the simulator we used there were 4 objectives (4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x). To switch to the different objectives you just rotate them to the objective you want to use. Make sure when you are adjusting them, you have enough room between the lens and the stage! Otherwise, you will scratch the lens and the stage!

When you put a specimen on the stage you want to make sure it is centered and over the hole on the stage. The light needs to be able to shine through the specimen so you can get a clear image. Set the objective to the right magnification that you want. Use the focus knobs to adjust the specimen to the right image that you want. If you want to adjust it quickly, use the coarse knob. If you want to make smaller adjustments, use the fine knob. The xy controls are used to move the specimen side to side, or left to right.

Working with a microscope takes a lot of work and practice. I found that the more I used it, I became more familiar with it. I would use different objectives to see what images I would see and how they would differ from each other. Just remember, the more you utilize it, the better you will get with it. Practice makes perfect!

Some historical facts:

Zacharias Janssen was the first to develop a microscope in 1595. Many people believe that his father, Hans, is the one who actually developed the first microscope

In 1660, Robert Hooke took the microscope and modified it. He was a very mathematical person and used his knowledge to improve the microscope.

"Anton van Leevwerhoek was the first person to ever describe bacteria (from teeth scrapings), protozoans (from pond water) and helped prove the theory of blood circulation"

(this cheek cell at 10x)

(This cheek cell at 40x)

(cheek cell at 100x)

Compendium Two: Genetics

2008-06-08T08:50:00.001-07:00

For this section, we covered 4 chapters of the book; Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance, DNA Biology and Technology, Cancer, and Genetic Inheritance. We went from the cell cycle to how abnormalities in the cell cycle can cause certain diseases. As a nursing major, I am really into how diseases are caused and what we can do to try and stop them from occurring.

Chapter 18:

--Humans have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs...22 pairs are autosomes, 1 pair are sex chromosomes

Cell Cycle has two phases..

1. Interphase (90% of cell cycle---about 20 hours)

G1- doubles in organelles
S- DNA replication, duplication of chromosomes
G2- Growth

2. Cell division

M- Mitosis

Mitosis is when the parent cell (original) produces daughter cell (duplication)

The process of Mitosis

Prophase (centrosome duplicates and separates)

Metaphase (chromosomes are at the center)

Anaphase (Separate and move to opposite ends)

Telephase (at opposite ends)
( http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k3ch8mitosisnotes.html)

Meiosis is when the daughter cells divide...so you'll have 4 daughter cells total after the division

Meiosis I- Line up side by side, paired chromosomes at equator,

Meiosis II- Zygote (1st new individual)

The stages of Meiosis Prophase I

Metaphase I

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Meiosis requires 2 nuclear divisions, Mitosis only requires 1

4 daughter cells for meiosis, mitosis only 2

Spermatogenisis and Oogenisis are the production of sex cells (sperm and egg)

Chapter 21:

The structure of DNA is it "resembles a ladder" (Sylvia Mader, Human Biology 10th Edition). The middle part of the "ladder" is contained of 4 different materials. (A pairs with T: G pairs with C)

When the replication of DNA occurs, only one strand is original. It will duplicate itself to get the other strand.

(http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookDNAMOLGEN.html)

The structure of RNA differs from DNA because it only has one strand instead of the double helix. Instead of A, T, G, and C...RNA is constructed of A, U, C, and G.

rRNA joins with proteins and is produced in nucleus

mRNA is also produced in nucleus and is Messenger RNA

tRNA must have at least 20 present to keep functioning

Transcription is the process of

Forming mRNA

Processing mRNA

Translation

Chapter 19

According to the Cancer webpage (http://www.cancer.org/) there was an estimated 1,444,920 cases of new cancer in the United States alone. Cancer occurs when a cell does not have the capability of dying(apoptosis). It will just keep regenerating.

Cancers have abnormal nuclei they are larger than others and have a different number of chromosomes.

When cancer cells form they just keep growing until they produce a mass, called a tumor. Cancer cells "pile on top of each other" (Sylvia Mader, Human Biology 10th Edition). Benign tumors are usually contained and are tight together. Cancer usually grows all over the place with no real shape.

Three different stages

Initiation

Promotion

Progression

Cancer can often be a genetic disease. p53 is a protein that stops the cell cycle. A lot of cancers are lacking the p53 protein.

There are different types of cancer

Prognosis (tumor has spread to tissues and other parts of body)

Carcinomas (Skin, breast, liver, pancreas, intestines, lung, prostate, thyroid)

Sarcomas (bone, fibrous)

Leukemias (blood)

Lymphomas (lymphatic system)

Cancers, aside from genetics, can also be caused by the environment. Radiation, organic chemicals, and diet can have an effect on cancer.

You have a better chance of going into remission if you follow these 7 steps

Change in bowel or bladder

A sore that doesn't heal

Unusual bleeding

Thickening or lump

Indigestion or difficulty swallowing

Obvious change in move/wart

Nagging cough or hoarseness

(Page 411 from our Text book, Sylvia Mader Human Biology 10th edition)

(http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/cancer/Slide18)

There are many different ways to handle cancer and hopefully go into remission

Surgery

Radiation

Chemotherapy

Bone Marrow transplant

Newer technology

Immunotherapy

p53 gene therapy

Chapter 20:

Genotype are the genes of the individual. Dominant genes are represented with 2 upper case letters(AA), recessive genes are represented with 2 lower case letters(aa), and heterogenius is represented with 1 upper case and 1 lower case(Aa) (although it takes the characteristics of Dominant genes)

The product that we are testing (ex: blond hair) is called the phenotype

When trying to figure out what the percentage of a phenotype you can use the Punnett Square. Here is an example

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Punnett_square_%28PSF%29.png)

When forming a family pedigree you can set it up like this:

(http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/pedigree/mapgene.cfm)

When the environment changes some of the outcomes of genetics is it called Polygenic inheritance. (skin color can be changed by the sun)

Example of Incomplete dominance is when someone with curly hair and another person with straight hair produce a child with wavy hair. (Sylvia Mader, Human Biology 10th edition)

Compendium One

2008-06-05T08:52:00.000-07:00

Compendium One: CELLS

This first unit is about cells and how they are incorporated into all life. It also shows that all cells are contained of atoms and how they are bonded to form many different organs and other units. In chapter three, the book shows the different parts to a cell..and you can relate some of the parts of a cell to human organs. The cell has a “powerhouse” or what I refer to is the “brain” and many other parts that can translate into human organs.

Cells are made up of atoms and atoms are made up of:

1. Protons- which have a positive charge and are inside the nucleus
2. Neutrons- have a negative charge and are inside the nucleus
3. Electrons- circle around the nucleus

When you are trying to put together two atoms and 1 atom has one less electron and have an opposite attraction you get ionic bonding.
When you try to put two atoms together that have an even number of electrons and are attracted together you get covalent bonding.

Organic Molecules

1. Carbohydrates consist of simple carbohydrates, complex carbohydrates, and fiber
2. Lipids are fats to animals, and oils to plants. They contain more energy
3. Proteins have amino acids and have an unusual shape that is necessaryfor continuation.
4. Nucleic Acids consist of DNA and RNA and uses ATP to transport energy.
DNA forms helix RNA does not for helix

Cells are very interesting in the fact that new cells are produced from cells that are already present. Some of the structures of the animal cell can almost be related to a human being.

1. Plasma membrane: think of it as human skin because it is the outermost part of the cell. In the plasma membrane there are a couple of processes that take place

“Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from the area of highest concentration to the area of lower concentration, until they are equally distributed” (Sylvia S. Mader, Human Biology 10th Edition)

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across the plasma membrane

Active transport is movement from lower to higher concentrations and requires proteins

2. Nucleus you can think of as a humans heart. It keeps the cell going. The nucleus keeps the cells genetic information.

3. Endoplasmic Reticulum has two different parts the Rough ER is where proteins are processed and modified and the Smooth ER processes and transports to the plasma membrane or the Golgi Apparatus.

4. Golgi Apparatus and lysosomes you can think of as the digestive system. It is where proteins and lipids are processed, packaged and secreted.

5. Mitochondria are like the brain of a cell. It processes ATP for energy and keeps the cell going.

There are four different types of tissues.

1. Connective- connects (tendons, bone, ligaments)
Fibrous, supportive, bone, and fluid tissues

2. Muscular- moves the body (muscles of the body, heart)
Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac

3. Nervous- conducts impulses (brain)
Neurons and Neuroglia

4. Epithelial- covers the body (skin)
Simple, Columnar, Cuboidal, Squamous, Pseudostratified, Transitional, Stratified.

Figure 4.12 (page 74-75) goes into all the different systems which has a good representation of how each system works.

Cells are a part of life. They are so tiny, but are so important. They are what make up man, animals, plants....just about everything! Every little thing about cells; how they bond, how they work, and how they make up objects is amazing.

First Blog!

2008-05-27T10:36:00.000-07:00

Hello All, My name is Sarah Brantner and I'm 24 years old. I don't really have a favorite artist, although I love music...mostly country! I am taking this class as a prerequisite for the nursing program. I hope to learn and understand human biology and I hope to do well in this class so I can go further with my studies :)

Three interesting facts about myself or my family:

1. My son is 19 months old and is one of the reasons I am going back to school!

2. My husband is a flight instructor for Embry Riddle, and I absolutely HATE flying!

3. I am a Certified Pharmacy Technician